THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


BOOKS  BY  HENRY  SMITH  WILLIAMS 

THE  STORY  OF  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  SCIENCE. 
Harper  &  Bros.,  1900. 

"He  must  have  a  dull  mind  indeed  who  can  read  this  book 
without  fascination." — Christian  Register. 

THE  HISTORY  OP  THE  ART  OF  WRITING.  (Four  massive 
portfolios  with  200  fac-similes  in  tone  and  color.)  Merrill  & 
Baker,  1902-1903. 

"One  of  the  most  superb  examples  of  book-making  in  America 
since  Audubon's  masterpiece." — Rupert  Hughes  in  the  Marconi- 
gram. 

THE  HISTORIANS'  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD:  A  Compre- 
hensive Narrative  of  the  Rise  and  Development  of  Nations.  (25 
vols.  with  about  3,000  illustrations.)  Edited  with  the  collab- 
oration of  many  specialists,  European  and  American  The  Out- 
look Company,  1904-1905. 

"A  work  of  epoch-making  importance  comparable  in  scholar- 
ship and  authority  to  La  Grand  Encyclopedic,  the  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography,  the  New  English  Dictionary,  and  the  En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica." — The  Times,  London. 

A  HISTORY  OF  SCIENCE.  (5  vols.,  fully  illustrated.)  Harper 
&  Bros.,  1904. 

"At  once  a  source  of  information  and  an  inspiration." — Prof. 
Louis  G.  Nolte. 

ALCOHOL:  How  it  Affects  the  Individual,  the  Community,  and 
the  Race.  The  Century  Co.,  1909. 

"By  your  clear  and  dispassionate  presentation  of  this  subject 
you  have  earned  the  respect  and  gratitude  of  a  generation,  and 
have  done  the  good  of  an  average  lifetime." — Letter  to  the  Author. 

RACE  CONQUEST;  OR  THE  LESSON  OF  HEREDITY:  A 
Study  in  Eugenics.  The  Goodhue  Co.  In  press.  Based  on  a 
series  of  lectures  delivered  at  the  Hartford  School  of  Sociology. 
"I  am  glad  to  learn  that  Dr.  Williams'  highly  important  theories 
of  racial  development  are  at  last  to  be  given  to  the  world  in 
permanent  form." — J.  M.  Keyes,  M.D. 

THE  SCIENCE  OF  HAPPINESS :  An  Optimistic  Study  of  the 
Art  of  Living.  Harper  &  Brotners,  1910. 

"B3tter  than  medicine  for  patients  of  a  certain  class." — Dr. 
Walter  M.  Seward. 

EVERY-DAY  SCIENCE:  A  Record  of  the  Evolution  of  Ideas, 
the  Development  of  Ideals,  and  the  Application  of  Organized 
Knowledge  to  the  Needs  of  Practical  Life,  n  vols.,  profusely 
illustrated.  The  Goodhue  Co.,  1910. 

"I  have  examined  advance  sheets  of  Dr.  Williams'  new  book 
with  great  interest.  There  is  certainly  no  work  closely  com- 
parable to  it  in  any  language  with  which  I  am  familiar.  It  will 
surely  have  enormous  influence  for  the  advancement  of  scientific 
education  and  of  general  culture." — Geo.  H.  Casamajor,  C.E. 


A 

HISTORY  OF  SCIENCE 


BY 

HENRY  SMITH  WILLIAMS,  M.D.,  LL.D. 

ASSISTED   BY 

EDWARD  H.  WILLIAMS.  M.D. 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


NEW    YORK    AND    LONDON 
HARPER     &    BROTHERS 

PUBLISHERS  v  MDCCOCX 


Copyright,  1910,  by  THE  GOODHOK  Co. 

AU  rights  reserved 


DEDICATION 

To  the  boys  and  girls  of  to-day,  who  hold  all  the  pos- 
sibilities of  the  future  in  their  keeping. 

To  mothers  and  fathers,  upon  whom  rests  the  vast 
responsibility  of  directing  the  minds  and  moulding  the 
characters  of  the  coming  generation; 

To  educators  by  profession  in  every  rank  from  kinder- 
garten to  university; 

To  members  of  the  traditional  "learned"  professions, 
who  are  of  necessity  leaders  of  thought  and  f ormulators 
of  ideals  in  the  community;  and 

To  intelligent  men  and  women  in  any  walk  of  life  who 
aspire  to  keep  abreast  of  their  times  and  to  broaden  their 
horizons: 

The  books  of  this  series,  designed  to  contribute  to  the 
progress  of  civilization  through  the  dissemination  of 
useful  knowledge,  are  dedicated. 


772301 


CONTENTS 

I.     INTRODUCTION  AND  KEY,  outlining  the  general  schemeof  the 
entire  work  and  giving  complete  tables  of  contents  by  chapters. 

II.  TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY,  in  which  the  tech- 
nical terms  of  every  department  of  Science  are  defined,  with 
illustrative  comment. 

III.  BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX,   comprising   a  full   list   of   the   dis- 

coveries in  every  department  of  Science,  theoretical  and  practical, 
with  brief  sketches  of  their  work. 

IV.  ENCYCLOPEDIC   GENERAL   INDEX,   covering  fully  all  the 

topics  treated,  with  abundant  cross-references. 


KEY    AND    INDEX    VOLUME 


A  KEY  TO   THE  TEXT 

THE  present  volume  is  devoted  to  Indexes  which 
analyze  the  text  of  the  preceding  volumes  from  various 
standpoints. 

Two  of  these  indexes  are  of  somewhat  novel  char- 
acter, inasmuch  as  they  introduce  specific  explanatory 
matter  concerning  technicalities  of  science,  or  biograph- 
ical data  regarding  important  scientific  workers,  in 
addition  to  guiding  the  reader  to  the  pages  of  the  pre- 
ceding volumes. 

The  third  Index  is  of  more  conventional  character, 
and  is  designed  solely  as  an  analysis  of  the  text;  yet 
its  references  are  always  so  phrased  as  to  convey  a 
clear  idea  of  the  exact  subject  to  which  the  reader  is 
guided. 

AN  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  TEXT 

As  preliminary  to  these  Indexes  it  will,  perhaps,  oe 
a  convenience  to  the  reader  to  have  presented  here  a 
very  brief  analysis  of  the  varied  contents  of  the  pre- 
ceding volumes  from  two  different  standpoints:  First, 
a  very  general  survey  of  the  subjects  treated;  secondly, 
a  more  detailed  presentation  of  these  subjects  as  re- 
vealed by  the  titles  of  the  successive  chapters,  volume 
by  volume. 

Perhaps  the  most  general  analysis  that  could  be 
made  of  the  text  as  a  whole  would  characterize  it  as  a 
comprehensive  presentation  of  the  growth  of  scientific 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

knowledge  in  all  its  departments,  and  the  application 
of  that  knowledge  to  the  affairs  of  e very-day  life. 

So  general  a  characterization,  of  course,  can  convey 
but  a  vague  impression  to  the  mind.  To  make  this 
impression  somewhat  specific,  let  us  say  that  there 
are  six  or  seven  large  groups  of  subjects  that  form  the 
theme  of  our  successive  chapters.  These  might  be 
summarized  in  various  ways,  but  perhaps  the  follow- 
ing somewhat  arbitrary  classification  will  serve  as  well 
as  another: 

1.  Cosmical  Sciences,  as  specifically  represented  by 
the  science  of  astronomy,  with  its  practical  applications 
to  the  art  of  navigation.     Here  we  have  to  do  with  the 
ferreting-out  of  the  secrets  of  the  starry  universe  and 
the  planetary  systems,  from  the  visionary  interpreta- 
tions of  the  ancient  Egyptian  and  Babylonian  star- 
gazers   to   the   accurately   measured   records   of   the 
modern  observer,  equipped  with  telescope,   spectro- 
scope, and  photographic  plate,  or  with  sextant  and 
compass. 

2.  Telluric  Sciences;  specifically,  geography,  geology, 
paleontology,  and  meteorology.    Here  we  deal  with 
those  studies  through  which  a  knowledge  of  the  earth's 
geographic  masses  and  of  its  rocky  structure  has  been 
gained;  with  interpretations  of  the  method  of  world- 
building  that  have  been  made  possible  by  the  study 
of  fossil  remains;  and  with  the  investigations  of  at- 
mospheric phenomena  to  which  the  modern  practical 
science  of  weather  prediction  owes  its  origin  and  its 
success. 

3.  Physical  Sciences,  or  what  the  students  of  the 
elder  day  termed  natural  philosophy,  including  the 
phenomena   of  gravitation,   heat,   light,   sound,   and 
electricity  and  magnetism.    This  is  a  field  at  once  of 
the  most  obvious  interest  and  the  utmost  practical 
importance.    Not  only  do  its  studies  have  to  do  with 


A  KEY   TO  THE  TEXT 

the  most  familiar  yet  baffling  and  inscrutable  of  pheno- 
mena, but  they  deal  also  with  the  applications  and 
transmutations  of  energy  upon  which  practically 
all  the  mechanisms  that  perform  the  world's  work 
depend — from  water  wheels  and  windmills  to  steam 
engines,  gasoline  motors,  and  electric  dynamos. 

4.  Chemical  Science,  and  the  Chemical  Industries. 
Here  we  have  virtually  an  extension  of  the  physical 
field  to  the  world  of  the  atom.     We  deal  with  inscrutable 
forces   which   have,   nevertheless,   the   most   tangible 
manifestations.     Our  studies  range  from  the  visionary 
dreams  of  the  ancient  alchemist,  and  the  scarcely  less 
mystical  calculations  of  the  modern  student  of  atoms, 
valences,  and  periodic  functions,  to  such  highly  prac- 
tical fields  as  the  work  of  electro-plating  metals,  com- 
pounding dye-stuffs,  and  manufacturing  artificial  gems 
in  the  laboratory. 

5.  Biological   Sciences,   including  botany,   zoology, 
biology  proper,   anatomy  and  physiology,   medicine, 
experimental  psychology,  and  anthropology.    Here  the 
very  list  of  subjects  is  sufficiently  explicative  of  the 
wide  range  of  interests  involved.    We  deal  with  the 
origins  of  life  itself;  with  the  evolution  of  species; 
with  the  applications  of  scientific  knowledge  to  the  con- 
quest of  disease ;  and  with  those  subtle  studies  that  are 
concerned  with  the  brain  itself  and  with  the  disembod- 
ied evidence  of  its  functionings  which  we  term  the  mind. 

6.  The    Applied    Sciences,    or    Mechanical    Arts. 
Much  that  is  implied  by  this  title  might  properly  be 
included,   also,   in   the   preceding  ones.     There   are, 
however,  a  good  many  of  the  mechanical  arts — for 
example,   paper-making,   printing,   book-binding,   the 
manufacture  of  cloth,  the  development  of  the  flying- 
machine,  and  the  like — that  have  depended  for  their 
development  upon  the  ingenious  application  of  familiar 
principles  rather  than  upon  any  novel  discovery.    Yet 

[3] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

the  story  of  the  application  of  these  principles  is  full 
of  interest,  and  in  many  cases  the  ingenuity  displayed 
in  the  application  of  old  principles  to  new  purposes  is 
fully  entitled  to  be  described  as  the  work  of  genius. 
Indeed  such  application  of  theoretical  principles  to  the 
development  of  the  practical  mechanisms  through 
which  the  entire  structure  of  civilization  has  been 
developed  constitutes  the  crowning  achievement  of 
scientific  investigation. 

CONTENTS  BY  CHAPTERS 

The  summary  just  presented  will  serve,  perhaps,  to 
give  at  least  a  general  notion  of  the  scope  of  our  text. 
A  notion  still  more  precise  may  be  gained  from  a  sur- 
vey of  the  contents  of  the  successive  volumes  by  chap- 
ters. Such  a  Table  of  Contents  is  here  presented. 
By  glancing  at  it  the  reader  will  be  enabled  to  locate 
any  specific  subject  as  regards  its  main  treatment. 
The  list  may,  therefore,  serve  as  an  index  of  the  most 
general  character,  preparatory  for  the  detailed  analyses 
made  by  the  Indexes  that  follow,  which  are,  as  already 
noted,  of  three  types: 

I.  Technical   Index   and   Glossary,    in    which   the 
technical  terms  of  every  department  of  science  are  de- 
fined, with  illustrative  comment. 

II.  Biographical  Index:   Comprising  a  full  list  of 
the  discoverers  in  every  department  of  science,  theoret- 
ical and  practical,  with  brief  sketches  of  their  work. 

III.  Encyclopaedic  General  Index  for  the  text  vol- 
umes, covering  fully  all  the  topics  treated,  with  abun- 
dant cross  references. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  characterize  these  indexes  in 
detail,  as  their  titles  are  in  the  main  self-explanatory, 
and  as  the  indexes  themselves  occupy  the  succeeding 
pages,  making  up  the  bulk  of  the  present  volume. 

[4] 


CONTENTS    BY   CHAPTERS 


VOLUME  I 

THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  SCIENCE 

CHAPTER  PAGB 

I.    PREHISTORIC    SCIENCE       .......  3 

II.    EGYPTIAN    SCIENCE           .»            .-    f'<   .  '/    -  .          >V       «'            •  25 

III.  SCIENCE    OP   BABYLONIA    AND    ASSYRIA     .            ,  , •        »            .  56 

IV.  THE    DEVELOPMENT    OP   THE    ALPHABET                 «           ',.           .86 
V.    THE    BEGINNINGS    OP   GREEK    SCIENCE     ..            .            .            .  103 

VI.    THE    EARLY    GREEK    PHILOSOPHERS    IN    ITALY                .            .  112 

VII.    GREEK    SCIENCE    IN    THE    EARLY    ATTIC    PERIOD           .            .  139 

VIII.    POST-SOCRATIC    SCIENCE    AT    ATHENS           .            .            .            .  178 

IX.    GREEK   SCIENCE    OF   THE   ALEXANDRIAN    OR   HELLENISTIC 

PERIOD           .            .                        -.            .            .            .            .            .  189 

X.    SCIENCE    OF   THE    ROMAN    PERIOD      .            .            ...  253 

XI.    A    RETROSPECTIVE    GLANCE    AT    CLASSICAL    SCIENCE              .  285 

APPENDIX,    NOTES,    AND    BIBLIOGRAPHY                ...  301 

VOLUME  II 

THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  MODERN  SCIENCE 

I.    SCIENCE    IN    THE    DARK   AGE                 .           .           .            .            .  3 

II.    MEDIEVAL    SCIENCE    AMONG    THE    ARABIANS                  .            .  13 

III.  MEDIEVAL    SCIENCE    IN    THE    WEST              .            .            .            .  31 

IV.  THE    NEW    COSMOLOGY COPERNICUS      TO      KEPLER      AND 

GALILEO        .            .            .            .            .            .            .            .            .  52 

V.    GALILEO    AND    THE    NEW    PHYSICS 93 

VI.    TWO    PSEUDO-SCIENCES ALCHEMY    AND    ASTROLOGY            .  124 

VII.    FROM    PARACELSUS    TO    HARVEY          .  .  .  .  .156 

VIII.    MEDICINE    IN   THE    SIXTEENTH    AND    SEVENTEENTH    CEN- 
TURIES          .........  l8l 

IX.    PHILOSOPHER-SCIENTISTS     AND     NEW     INSTITUTIONS     OP 

LEARNING                •       ,    •        -••  '•  > '    •  '  .-      •            •           •            •  I9I 

X.    THE    SUCCESSORS   OP   GALILEO    IN    PHYSICAL   SCIENCE        .  204 
XI.    NEWTON    AND   THE    COMPOSITION    OF   LIGHT      .            .            .225 

XII.    NEWTON    AND    THE    LAW    OF    GRAVITATION         .            .            .  236 

XIII.  INSTRUMENTS    OF    PRECISION    IN    THE    AGE    OF    NEWTON  .  252 

XIV.  PROGRESS     IN      ELECTRICITY      FROM     GILBERT     AND     VON 

GUERICKE    TO    FRANKLIN       .                         .            f          .  ,            .  259 

XV.    NATURAL    HISTORY    TO    THE    TIME    OF    LINNAEUS          .             .  297 

APPENDIX,    NOTES,    AND    BIBLIOGRAPHY                .            .            .  305 

VOLUME  III 

MODERN  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PHYSICAL  SCIENCES 

I.    THE    SUCCESSORS    OF    NEWTON    IN    ASTRONOMY            .            .  3 

II.    THE    PROGRESS    OF    MODERN    ASTRONOMY             ...  19 

III.    THE    NEW   SCIENCE    OF    PALEONTOLOGY                 ,           .           .  74 


5] 


CONTENTS  BY  CHAPTERS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

IV.    THE    ORIGIN    AND    DEVELOPMENT    OF    MODERN    GEOLOGY  .  Il6 

V.    THE    NEW    SCIENCE    OF    METEOROLOGY       .                         .            .  168 

VI.    MODERN    THEORIES    OF    HEAT    AND    LIGHT            ...            .  206 

VII.    THE   MODERN    DEVELOPMENT   OF   ELECTRICITY   AND   MAG- 
NETISM          .            .....            .            .            .  229 

VIII.    THE    CONSERVATION    OP    ENERGY                    r  253 

IX.    THE    ETHER   AND    PONDERABLE    MATTER               .            .            .  283 

APPENDIX,    NOTES,    AND    BIBLIOGRAPHY                .            .            .  307 


VOLUME  IV 

MODERN  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHEMICAL  AND 
BIOLOGICAL  SCIENCES 

I.    THE    PHLOGISTON    THEORY    IN    CHEMISTRY          ...  3 
II.    THE    BEGINNINGS    OF    MODERN    CHEMISTRY         .             .            .II 

III.  CHEMISTRY    SINCE    THE    TIME§OF    DALTON            ...  38 

IV.  ANATOMY    AND    PHYSIOLOGY    IN    THE    EIGHTEENTH     CEN- 

TURY               73 

V.    ANATOMY    AND    PHYSIOLOGY    IN     THE    NINETEENTH      CEN- 
TURY                  102 

VI.    THEORIES    OF    ORGANIC    EVOLUTION              ....  140 

VII.    EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY    MEDICINE                   ....  182 

VIII.    NINETEENTH-CENTURY    MEDICINE                  ....  199 

IX.    THE    NEW    SCIENCE    OF    EXPERIMENTAL    PSYCHOLOGY         .  245 

X.    THE    NEW    SCIENCE    OF    ORIENTAL   ARCHAEOLOGY        .             .  287 

APPENDIX,    NOTES,    AND    BIBLIOGRAPHY               .            .            .  303 


VOLUME  V 

ASPECTS  OF  RECENT  SCIENCE 

I.    THE   BRITISH    MUSEUM      .......  3 

II.    THE    ROYAL    SOCIETY        OF        LONDON        FOR        IMPROVING 

NATURAL    KNOWLEDGE  ......          14 

III.  THE    ROYAL   INSTITUTION     AND    THE    LOW-TEMPERATURE 

RESEARCHES 29 

IV.  SOME      PHYSICAL     LABORATORIES     AND     PHYSICAL     PROB- 

LEMS               73 

V.    THE    MARINE    BIOLOGICAL    LABORATORY    AT    NAPLES             .  113 

VI.    ERNST    HAECKEL   AND    THE    NEW    ZOOLOGY          .             .            .  144 
VII.    SOME   MEDICAL   LABORATORIES      AND       MEDICAL        PROB- 
LEMS               .            .            .            .            .            .            .            .             .178 

VIII.    SOME    UNSOLVED    SCIENTIFIC    PROBLEMS               .            .             .  203 

IX.    RETROSPECT    AND    PROSPECT                  .....  230 

REFERENCE    LIST   AND   LIST   OF   SOURCES            .            .            .  243 


[6] 


CONTENTS   BY   CHAPTERS 


VOLUME  VI 

THE  CONQUEST  OP  NATURE 

CHAPTER  PAGB 

I.    MAN    AND    NATURE                .......  3 

II.    HOW    WORK    IS    DONE          .             ..;»,.»            .             .  29 

III.  THE    ANIMAL    MACHINE     .             .          .  ,            «        f    .             .             .  43 

IV.  THE    WORK    OP    AIR   AND    WATER        .             .            .           :.             .  62 

v.  CAPTIVE    MOLECULES:   THE    STORY  OP   THE   STEAM  EN- 
GINE           .....         .         .         .         .  79 

VI.  THE  MASTER  WORKER    .         .         .         .         .         .         .  IIO 

VII.  GAS  AND  OIL  ENGINES  ...         .         .         .         .132 

VIII.  THE  SMALLEST  WORKERS        .         ".      '.'•*•         •  148 

IX.  MAN'S  NEWEST  CO-LABORER THE  DYNAMO              .         .  171 

X.  NIAGARA  IN  HARNESS     .         .         .         .         .         ;  '       .  183 

XI.  THE  BANISHMENT  OP  NIGHT            .         .         .         .         .  2OI 

XII.  THE  MINERAL  DEPTHS    .......  242 

XIII.  THE    AGE    OP    STEEL 271 

XIV.  SOME    RECENT    TRIUMPHS    OP    APPLIED    SCIENCE          .             .  298 
APPENDIX '•:"':•  321 


VOLUME  VII 

THE  CONQUEST  OF  TIME  AND  SPACE 

I.  THE  CONQUEST  OP  THE  ZONES     .     .     .     .     .  5 

II.  THE  HIGHWAY  OP  THE  WATERS 56 

III.  SUBMARINE    VESSELS          .......  93 

IV.  THE    STEAM    LOCOMOTIVE 1 19 

V.  FROM    CART    TO    AUTOMOBILE 152 

VI.    THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    ELECTRIC    RAILWAYS  .  -175 

VII.    THE    GYROCAR  ........       195 

VIII.    THE    GYROSCOPE    AND    OCEAN    TRAVEL       .  .  .  .217 

IX.    NAVIGATING    THE    AIR        .  .  .  ;        .    i  .  .       226 

X.    THE    TRIUMPH    OP   THE    AEROPLANE  ....       272 

APPENDIX          .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .      303 

VOLUME  VIII 

SCIENCE  IN  THE  INDUSTRIAL  WORLD 

I.    THE    DEVELOPMENT   OP    THE  TELEGRAPH             ...           3 

II.    THE    SUBMARINE    CABLE  ......         30 

III.  WIRELESS    TELEGRAPHY  .            ....            .            .         47 

IV.  THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE  TELEPHONE              ...          66 
V.    THE    EDISON    PHONOGRAPH  .             .            .             .             .             -93 

VI.    PRIMITIVE    BOOKS  '       .  '[       .  .  .  .  .  -99 

VII.    THE    PRINTING    AND    MAKING    OF    MODERN    BOOKS        .  .119 

VIII.    THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    PAPER  .  .  .  .       159 


[7] 


CONTENTS  BY   CHAPTERS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

IX.    THE    REPRODUCTION    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS               .             .             .  184 

X.    PHOTOGRAPHY   IN    ITS    SCIENTIFIC    ASPECTS        .            .            .  33O 

XI.    PAINTS,    DYES,    AND    VARNISHES          .            .            .            .            .  358 

APPENDIX          .            ,  ;         .           . 323 

VOLUME  IX 

INGENUITY  AND  LUXURY 

I.    AN    INDUSTRIAL    REVOLUTION               .....  5 

II.    THE    MANUFACTURE    OF   TEXTILES                 ....  38 

III.  THE    STORY    OF    COSTUMES 58 

IV.  THE    SKWING-MACHINE            .      .            .            .            .            .            .  87 

V.    CLOTHING    THE    EXTREMITIES 103 

VI.    THE    EVOLUTION   OP   THE    DWELLING   HOUSE      .            .            .  133 

VII.    THE    MODERN    SKYSCRAPER        ......  162 

VIII.    ARTIFICIAL   STONE,    OR   CONCRETE                ....  182 

IX.    FURNITURE    AND    FURNISHINGS  .  .  .  .  .213 

X.    THE    PRODUCTS    OF    CLAY   AND    FIRE  .  .  .  .227 

XI.    GLASS    AND    GLASS-MAKING         ......  277 

XII.    GEMS,    NATURAL   AND    ARTIFICIAL                  ....  295 

APPENDIX 333 

VOLUME  X 

THE  SCIENCE  OF  HAPPINESS 

PART   I. THE     PROBLEM     OF     HAPPINESS     AND     ITS     PHYSICAL 

ASPECTS 

I.    THE    PROBLEM    OF    HAPPINESS  .  .5 

II.    PHYSICAL    NEEDS 21 

III.  SOUND    BODIES 41 

IV.  HOW   TO    SLEEP 6l 

PART    II. MENTAL   ASPECTS    OF    THE    PROBLEM    OF    HAPPINESS 

V.    HOW    TO    SEE    AND    REMEMBER 85 

VI.    HOW    TO    THINK 103 

VII.    THE    WIL..   AND    THE    WAY 123 

VIII.    SELF    KNOWLEDGE 135 

PART    III. SOCIAL   ASPECTS    OF     THE    PROBLEM    OF     HAPPINESS 

IX.    HOW    TO    WORK           ........  149 

X.    YOUTH    VERSUS    AGE 167 

XI.    GOLD    VERSUS    IDEALS 185 

XII.    VOCATION    VERSUS    AVOCATION 195 

PART   IV. MORAL   ASPECTS    OF     THE    PROBLEM    OF    HAPPINESS 

XIII.  LIFE    COMPANIONSHIP        .  .  .  .  .  .  .213 

XIV.  THE    COMING    GENERATION 231 

XV.    HOW    TO    INVITE    HAPPINESS 243 

XVI.    HOW   TO    DIE 257 

APPENDIX   AND   INDEX  273  to  350 


[8] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 

(Under  this  alphabet,  technical  and  semitechnical 
terms  are  defined,  with  illustrative  comment,  and  often 
with  the  addition  of  historical  data.  The  references  to 
the  text,  by  volume  and  page,  though  specific,  are  in- 
tended rather  as  general  guides  to  the  reader  than  as 
offering  a  complete  or  detailed  analysis  of  the  subject. 

For  a  more  detailed  analysis  see  the  Encyclopaedic 
General  Index  in  this  volume.  For  biographical  data 
see  the  Biographical  Index.) 

Aberration,  (i)  In  physics,  that  property  of  a  lens  in  virtue 
of  which  it  forms  an  image  with  color  fringes,  due  to  the  fact 
that  different  rays  of  light  are  not  brought  precisely  to  the 
same  focus.  This  difficulty  is  never  entirely  overcome  even 
with  the  finest  astronomical  lenses.  (2)  In  astronomy,  the  dis- 
placement of  the  apparent  position  of  a  celestial  body  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  velocity  of  light  is  not  infinite.  See  "Bradley 
and  the  Aberration  of  Light,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  II. 

Abrasives.  Those  substances  used  in  grinding  and  polishing. 
See  "Gems,  Natural  and  Artificial,"  Vol.  IX,  p.  295;  in  particular 
p.  306;  also  "Glass  and  Glass  Making,"  Vol.  IX,  p.  293. 

Absolute  Zero.  The  hypothetical  condition  of  matter  at  which 
its  molecules  or  atoms  are  in  such  a  state  of  quiescence  that 
they  give  out  no  heat.  Theoretically  this  point  lies  272°  below 
the  Centigrade  zero;  practically  it  has  not  been  demonstrated 
iit  the  laboratory.  See  "The  Royal  Institution  and  the  Low 
Temperature  Researches,"  Vol.  V,  Chapter  3;  in  particular  p.  69. 

Acetylene.  A  hydrocarbon  gas,  made  commercially  by  adding 
water  to  calcium  carbide;  it  has  the  chemical  formula  CSH2.  See 
"The  Introduction  of  Acetylene  Gas,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  212. 

Actinium.  An  element  occurring  in  nature  associated  with 
zinc.  Discovered  in  1881  by  Dr.  T.  L.  Phipson.  See  "Element" 
and  "Periodic  Law,"  under  present  alphabet. 

Aeroplane.  The  apparatus,  consisting  originally  of  a  canvas 
plane  or  planes  supported  by  poles  and  wires  and  actuated  by 
motor-driven  propellers,  which  constituted  the  first  heavier- 
than-air  machine  in  which  human  flight  was  accomplished.  The 


9] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

first  successful  aeroplane,  that  of  the  Wright  Brothers  (operated 
at  Kitty  Hawk,  North  Carolina,  in  December,  1903),  had  two 
chief  planes,  one  above  the  other,  and  hence  is  called  a  biplane. 
The  imitative  machines  of  Farman,  Curtiss,  and  Cody  are  also 
biplanes.  The  apparatus  perfected  by  Bleriot  has  a  single  chief 
plane,  and  is  called  a  monoplane.  The  machine  used  by  Hubert 
Latham  is  also  a  monoplane.  The  prototype  of  these  machines 
is  the  original  aerodrome  of  Langley,  which  was  essentially  a 
monoplane  inasmuch  as  its  two  chief  portions  were  arranged  in 
the  same  horizontal  plane.  The  box  kite  may  be  taken  as  the 
prototype  of  the  biplane.  See  "The  Triumph  of  the  Aeroplane," 
Vol.  VII,  p.  272. 

Air-pump.  A  machine  by  means  of  which  air  or  other  gases 
may  be  removed  from  an  enclosed  space.  It  was  invented  by 
Otto  von  Guericke  about  1650.  See  "Mariotte  and  von  Guericke," 
Vol.  II,  p.  210. 

Air-thermometer.  An  instrument  for  measuring  temperature, 
in  which  the  change  of  volume  of  air  under  a  constant  pressure 
is  made  to  indicate  changes  in  temperature.  The  discovery  that 
a  gas  expands  at  a  uniform  rate  under  increasing  temperatures, 
and  correspondingly  contracts  as  temperatures  decrease  (con- 
stant pressure  being  maintained)  was  made  independently  by 
Boyle  and  Mariotte  in  the  eighteenth  century.  See  "The  Suc- 
cessors of  Galileo  in  Physical  Science,"  Vol.  II,  p.  204  and  p.  210. 

Albinism.  A  condition  in  which  there  is  a  congenital  absence 
of  pigment  in  the  hair,  iris,  and  skin.  It  occurs  in  plants  as 
well  as  animals,  and  in  all  races  of  men.  Individuals  so  affected 
are  called  albinos.  See  the  reference  to  the  collection  of  spec- 
imens illustrating  albinism  (and  the  opposite  state  of  melanism) 
in  the  Natural  History  Museum  at  South  Kensington,  London, 
Vol.  V,  p.  10. 

Alchemy.  The  pseudo-science  which  sought  to  find  a  magic 
"elixir"  or  "philosophers  stone"  that  would  give  its  possessor  the 
secret  of  eternal  youth,  and  would  also  enable  him  to  transmute 
silver  and  perhaps  the  baser  metals  into  gold.  For  full  treat- 
ment of  the  subject,  see  the  chapter  "Two  Pseudo-Sciences — 
Alchemy  and  Astrology,"  Vol.  II,  p.  124. 

Alcohol.  The  commercial  name  for  ethyl  alcohol,  having  the 
chemical  formula  C3H5O  H.  Alcohol  results  from  the  fermen- 
tation of  sugars  and  starches,  and  is  the  intoxicating  principle 
of  wine  and  other  beverages  that  were  familiar  from  the  earliest 
times;  but  the  distilled  spirit  as  such  seems  to  have  been  dis- 

[10] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

covered,  or  at  all  events  introduced  to  the  Western  world  and 
named  by  mediaeval  Arabian  physicians.  See  "Mediaeval  Science 
Among  the  Arabians,"  Vol.  II,  p.  22. 

Alizarine.  A  substance  formerly  obtained  from  the  root  of  the 
madder  plant,  Rubia  tinctorum,  but  now  chiefly  produced  from 
coal-tar.  It  has  great  commercial  importance  as  a  dye,  produc- 
ing the  color  known  as  "turkey  red."  The  growth  of  the  madder 
plant  was  formerly  an  important  industry,  but  like  the  cultivation 
of  the  indigo  plant,  this  pursuit  has  been  made  superfluous  by 
the  cheapness  of  the  coal-tar  colors.  See  "Pigments  from  Vege- 
table and  Animal  Sources,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  302;  in  particular  pp. 
307-309. 

Alloy.  An  intimate  homogeneous  mixture  of  different  metals, 
usually  produced  by  fusion.  Thus  brass  is  an  alloy  of  copper 
and  zinc;  pewter,  an  alloy  of  tin  and  lead;  steel,  an  alloy  of  iron 
and  various  other  elements,  chief  among  which  are  carbon, 
nickel,  manganese,  and  tungsten.  See  chapter  "The  Age  of 
Steel,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  271;  in  particular  "The  Conversion  of  Iron 
Ore  into  Iron  and  Steel,"  p.  283,  and  "Alloy  Steels,"  p.  295. 

Alternating  current.  The  electrical  current  produced  by  a 
dynamo  not  provided  with  a  commutator.  See  "The  Mechanism 
of  the  Dynamo,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  173. 

Aluminum.  A  nearly  white  metal,  about  as  hard  as  silver, 
and  having  a  tensile  strength  about  equal  to  that  of  copper,  but 
many  times  lighter  in  weight  than  either.  It  alloys  with  almost 
all  the  metals,  and  for  this  reason,  and  because  of  its  lightness,  is 
of  great  commercial  importance.  Aluminum  oxides  are  the  base 
of  the  important  corundum  group  of  gems,  including  true  rubies, 
sapphires,  and  emeralds.  See  "The  Ruby  and  Its  Allies,"  Vol. 
IX,  p.  319;  also  "Artificial  Gems,"  Vol.  IX,  p.  331.  Though 
aluminum  is  a  chief  constituent  of  clayey  soils,  its  isolation  has 
been  difficult.  For  the  electrolytic  method  of  its  production,  see 
"Some  Recent  Triumphs  of  Applied  Science,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  300. 

Amethyst.  A  variety  of  corundum  (a  crystalline  oxide  of 
aluminum),  its  violet  or  purple  color  being  due  probably  to 
traces  of  manganese  or  of  iron.  See  "The  Ruby  and  its  Allies," 
Vol.  IX,  p.  319. 

Ammonia.  A  gaseous  compound  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen, 
having  the  formula  N  H3.  It  is  supposed  to  derive  its  name  from 
the  fact  that  it  was  originally  prepared  near  the  temple  of 
Ammon,  in  Egypt.  Its  composition  was,  of  course,  unknown 
until  the  time  of  the  "pneumatic  chemists"  (including  Black, 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Cavendish,  Priestley,  Scheele,  and  Lavoisier),  whose  efforts  laid 
the  foundation  for  all  modern  knowledge  of  the  gases  about  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  For  an  account  of  their  work, 
see  "The  Beginnings  of  Modern  Chemistry,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  n. 

Amoeba.  A  protozoan,  which  is  present  almost  everywhere 
in  fresh  water,  and  in  moist  earth,  and  is  usually  taken  as  a 
type  of  unicellular  animals.  Certain  forms  of  the  Amoeba  pro- 
duce diseases,  such  as  dysentery  and  abscess  of  the  liver. 
Microscopic  organisms  were  studied  by  such  early  microscopists 
as  Leeuwenhoek  (see  Vol.  II,  p.  179)  and  Robert  Hooke  (see 
Vol.  II,  p.  217),  but  it  remained  for  investigators  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  to  demonstrate  their  importance.  See  "Parasitic 
Diseases,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  204. 

Anaesthetic.  An  agent  used  to  produce  loss  or  impairment 
of  sensibility.  The  word  was  coined  by  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes.  The  use  of  ether,  the  most  important  general  anaes- 
thetic known,  was  discovered  by  Dr.  W.  T.  G.  Morton,  a  dentist, 
in  1842.  The  anaesthetic  property  of  chloroform  was  discovered 
by  Sir.  J.  Y.  Simpson,  of  Edinburgh,  in  1843.  See  "Painless 
Surgery,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  208. 

Anastomosis.  In  anatomy,  the  joining  of  branches  of  a  vessel 
with  other  vessels  or  branches.  Hunter's  discovery  of  the  func- 
tion of  this  anastomosis  in  arteries  and  veins  marked  an  epoch 
in  surgery.  See  Vol.  IV,  p.  82. 

Aneurism.  A  disease  (or  injury)  of  the  walls  of  an  artery  re- 
sulting in  the  formation  of  a  pulsating  tumor  or  sac.  The  Eng- 
lish surgeon,  John  Hunter,  about  1770,  devised  an  operation  for 
the  cure  of  this  condition,  his  discovery  being  the  direct  result 
of  an  operation  performed  on  a  deer  in  Richmond  Park.  See 
"Hunter's  Operation  for  the  Cure  of  Aneurism,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  81. 

Aniline.  An  organic  substance,  with  the  formula  C«H5N  Ha. 
It  was  discovered  in  1826,  but  was  of  no  commercial  importance 
until  1856,  when  W.  H.  Perkin  prepared  a  purple  dye  from  it. 
See  "Coal-tar  Colors,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  311. 

Animism.  A  system  of  philosophy  introduced  by  Stahl,  based 
on  the  idea  that  the  soul  is  the  seat  of  life.  See  "Eighteenth 
Century  Medicine,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  185. 

Annealing.  A  process  for  increasing  the  ductility  of  metals 
and  glass.  The  usual  method  of  annealing  is  by  heating  and  then 
cooling  slowly. 

Anode.  The  electrode  at  which  a  current  of  positive  electricity 
enters  a  battery.  The  other  electrode  is  called  the  "cathode." 

[12] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

Anthrax.  A  disease  affecting  cattle,  sheep,  and  men,  known 
as  malignant  pustule,  splenic  fever,  wool-sorter's  disease,  etc. 
It  is  very  fatal,  and  caused  by  the  bacillus  anthracis.  Protection 
by  preventive  inoculation  was  discovered  by  Pasteur.  See  Vol. 
IV,  p.  232. 

Anthropology.  The  branch  of  knowledge  that  deals  with  the 
characteristics  of  mankind  as  forming  an  organic  whole.  It 
considers  the  question  of  man's  first  appearance  on  earth,  and 
the  influences  that  have  resulted  in  existing  civilization.  Scien- 
tific anthropology  is  a  development  of  the  late  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, the  discoveries  that  proved  man's  antiquity  preparing  the 
way.  See  "Fossil  Man,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  98;  also  "The  New  Science 
of  Anthropology,"  Vol.  V,  p.  228. 

Antipyritics.  The  name  given  to  those  remedies  used  for  re- 
ducing temperature  in  diseased  conditions. 

Antiseptic.  A  term  meaning  that  which  arrests  decay.  In 
modern  medicine  a  substance  which  destroys  disease-producing 
micro-organisms,  or  germs.  The  discovery  of  the  use  of  anti- 
septics in  surgery  was  made  by  Lord  Lister,  this  discovery  and 
its  application  bringing  about  a  revolution  in  surgical  methods. 
See  "Lister  and  Antiseptic  Surgery,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  229. 

Antitoxins.  Substances  developed  in  the  human  body,  or  the 
body  of  an  animal,  antagonistic  to  the  poisons  (toxins)  of  dis- 
ease. See  "Serum  Therapy,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  240;  "Aims  and  Ob- 
jects of  the  Pasteur  Institute,"  Vol.  V,  p.  182. 

Archaeology.  The  science  that  deals  with  the  history  of  human 
progress  in  ancient  times,  as  judged  by  relics  of  man's  work, 
apart  from  written  records.  See  "The  New  Science  of  Oriental 
Archaeology,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  287. 

Argon.  An  element  discovered  in  the  earth's  atmosphere  by 
Sir  William  Ramsay  and  Lord  Rayleigh.  Named  from  the 
Greek  word  meaning  "inactive,"  because  of  its  lack  of  chemical 
affinity.  See  "Sir  William  Ramsay  and  the  New  Gases,"  Vol.  V, 
p.  82;  in  particular  pp.  85-86. 

Armature.  The  name  given  originally  to  a  piece  of  soft  iron 
placed  across  the  poles  of  permanent  or  electro-magnets  to 
receive  and  concentrate  the  attractive  force.  In  the  modern 
dynamo,  the  armature  consists  of  coils  of  wire  which  convey 
an  electric  current.  The  mutual  relations  of  armature  and 
electro-magnet  (either  of  which  may  revolve,  but  one  or  the 
other  being  stationary)  give  rise  to  the  accentuated  electrical 

[13] 


KEY  AND   INDEX 

current  which  it  is  the  function  of  the  dynamo  to  develop.  See 
"The  Mechanism  of  the  Dynamo,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  173;  also  "Niagara 
in  Harness,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  190. 

Artificial  Gems.    See  "Gems,"  in  present  glossary. 

Artificial  Stone,  or  Concrete.  A  stone-like  substance  made  by 
mixing  cement  with  sand  and  pebbles  or  broken  stone.  Cement 
itself  is  a  mixture  of  powdered  burnt  clay,  and  powdered 
hydrates  of  lime.  It  was  extensively  used  by  the  Romans,  but 
little  used  by  their  successors  until  toward  the  close  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Modern  cements  differ  somewhat  from  the 
ancient  and  from  one  another,  but  all  have  as  a  base  a  mixture 
of  argillaceous  and  calcareous  minerals  (clays  and  lime  com- 
pounds). See  chapter  on  "Artificial  Stone,  or  Cement,"  Vol. 
IX,  p.  182. 

Astrolabe.  An  obsolete  instrument  for  measuring  the  apparent 
angle  between  two  visual  (usually  astronomical)  bodies.  The 
astrolabe,  introduced  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
superseded  the  cross-staff  as  an  aid  to  the  navigator,  and  was 
in  due  course  supplanted  by  the  sextant.  See  "The  Development 
of  the  Sextant,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  18. 

Astrology.  The  pseudo-science  that  purports  to  study  the 
stars  and  planets  with  the  intent  to  forecast  or  interpret  terres- 
trial events.  Astrology  flourished  in  Egypt  and  Babylonia  and 
in  the  Western  world  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  It  num- 
bered among  its  practitioners  some  astronomers  of  note,  after 
the  revival  of  learning,  even  including  Kepler,  who,  however, 
was  probably  skeptical  as  to  the  validity  of  its  claims.  It  grad- 
ually fell  into  disrepute  with  the  advance  of  scientific  knowledge. 
See  "Two  Pseudo-Sciences,"  Vol.  II,  p.  141. 

Astronomy.  The  science  that  deals  with  the  sidereal  and 
planetary  bodies.  Observational  astronomy  reached  a  relatively 
high  development  in  Egypt  and  Babylonia  and  was  cultivated 
with  great  success  by  the  Greeks  of  the  Alexandrian  epoch. 
The  Arabs  were  adept  star-gazers.  But  modern  astronomy 
dates  from  Copernicus,  Kepler,  Galileo,  and  Tycho  Brahe.  The 
vast  generalization  of  Newton  gave  it  fresh  impetus.  Herschel's 
perfected  telescope  opened  up  new  fields,  with  particular  refer- 
ence to  nebulae  and  double  stars.  Spectroscopy  and  photography 
in  the  nineteenth  century  still  further  widened  the  scope  of  the 
science.  See  "Egyptian  Astronomy,"  Vol.  I,  p.  33;  "Babylonian 
Astronomy,"  Vol.  I,  p.  61;  for  Greek  Astronomy,  Vol.  I,  p.  212; 
"Ptolemy,  the  Last  Great  Astronomer  of  Antiquity,"  Vol.  I, 

[14] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

p.  267;  Arabian  Astronomy,  Vol.  II,  p.  14;  "Copernicus  to  Kepler 
and  Galileo,"  Vol.  II,  p.  52;  "Newton  and  the  Law  of  Gravita- 
tion," Vol.  II,  p.  236;  "The  Successors  of  Newton  in  Astronomy," 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  3;  "The  Progress  of  Modern  Astronomy,"  Vol.  Ill, 
p.  19;  "Solar  and  Telluric  Problems,"  Vol.  V,  p.  205.  Numerous 
minor  references  might  be  added,  but  the  above  outline  the  main 
story  of  astronomical  progress. 

Atlantic  Cable.  The  first  cable  across  the  Atlantic  was  pro- 
jected by  Cyrus  W.  Field  in  1856.  After  unsuccessful  efforts, 
the  first  electric  message  was  sent  across  the  ocean  in  August, 
1858.  This  cable  soon  parted,  however,  and  a  permanent  con- 
nection was  not  established  till  1866.  See  "The  Submarine 
Cable,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  30. 

Atmosphere.  The  "ocean  of  air  in  which  we  live"  has  been 
investigated  scientifically  chiefly  within  the  past  century.  Its 
composition,  as  regards  the  chief  constituents,  oxygen  and 
nitrogen,  was  determined  toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century;  but  the  minor  gases,  argon,  neon,  crypton,  and  xenon, 
escaped  detection  for  about  a  hundred  years,  when  they  were 
discovered  by  Lord  Rayleigh  and  Sir  William  Ramsay.  See 
Vol.  V,  p.  82.  For  meteorological  aspects  of  the  atmosphere, 
see  Vol.  Ill,  p.  168. 

Atom.  The  unit  structure  of  matter  as  viewed  by  the  chemist. 
The  atomic  theory  of  matter  in  its  modern  scientific  develop- 
ment dates  from  the  time  of  John  Dalton,  who  propounded  the 
theory  in  1803.  See  "John  Dalton  and  the  Atomic  Theory," 
Vol.  IV,  p.  38. 

Atomic  weights.  Each  specific  atom  has  a  definite  weight, 
which  chemists  have  been  at  great  pains  to  discover.  For  table 
of  atomic  weights,  see  "Element,"  in  the  present  glossary. 

Aurora  Borealis.  A  manifestation  of  lights  seen  at  irregular 
intervals  toward  the  polar  regions;  believed  to  be  of  electrical 
origin.  The  most  recent  explanation  of  the  phenomenon  is  that 
of  Arrhenius,  who  thinks  the  light  due  to  electrons  thrown  out 
from  the  sun  and  accumulated  in  the  upper  atmosphere,  where, 
under  magnetic  influence,  they  tend  to  move  toward  the  poles. 
See  "The  Aurora  Borealis,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  172. 

Automatic  Coupling.  A  life  and  limb  saving  device  for  coupling 
freight  cars  without  the  direct  intervention  of  human  hands. 
An  effective  coupler  was  introduced  by  Eli  Janney  in  1879.  See 
"Automatic  Couplings,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  147. 

Automobile.     The    familiar    self-propelled     vehicle,     actuated 

[15] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

usually  by  a  gasoline  engine,  but  sometimes  by  steam  or  by 
electricity,  sprang  into  popularity  in  the  last  decade  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  but  its  prototypes  (propelled  by  steam)  were 
made  more  than  a  hundred  years  earlier.  See  "The  Coming  of 
the  Automobile,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  156. 

Axe.  This  familiar  implement  is  essentially  a  sharp  wedge 
operated  at  the  end  of  a  lever.  Its  use  dates  from  the  Rough 
Stone  Age.  See  "Applications  of  Muscular  Energy,"  Vol.  VI, 
P-  52. 

Babylonian  Medicine.  The  practice  of  medicine  in  Babylonia- 
Assyria  was  closely  bound  up  with  astrology  and  magic;  yet  it 
had  certain  more  scientific  aspects.  See  "Chaldean  Magic,"  Vol. 
I.  p.  69,  and  "Babylonian  Medicine,"  Vol.  I,  p.  75. 

Babylonian  Science.  The  science  of  the  Chaldeans,  Babylo- 
nians, and  Assyrians  is  usually  somewhat  vaguely  included  under 
this  title.  Our  knowledge  of  the  subject  depends  partly  upon 
Greek  traditions  (Herodotus,  Diodorus),  and  partly  upon  re- 
cently exhumed  archaeological  remains.  See  "Science  of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria,"  Vol.  I,  p.  56. 

Bacteria.  Microscopic  vegetable  organisms,  which  play  an 
all-important  part  in  the  economy  of  nature,  causing  putrefactive 
changes,  contagious  diseases,  etc.  Discovered  by  Leeuwenhoek 
in  1683.  Their  real  importance  was  unsuspected  until  late  in  the 
nineteenth  century.  For  the  importance  of  the  part  played  by 
bacteria  in  surgery,  and  the  discovery  of  a  method  of  com- 
batting their  effect,  see  "Lister  and  Antiseptic  Surgery,"  Vol. 
IV,  p.  229.  For  recent  studies  in  pathogenic  bacteria,  see  "Some 
Medical  Laboratories  and  Medical  Problems,"  Vol.  V,  p.  182. 

Barometer.  An  instrument  for  measuring  the  weight  of  the 
atmosphere;  in  its  simplest  form,  a  vacuum  tube  closed  at  one 
end  and  inverted  over  a  dish  of  mercury;  the  height  to  which 
the  mercury  rises  in  the  tube  demonstrates  the  atmospheric 
pressure,  which  varies  with  the  altitude  and  with  the  amount 
of  moisture  in  the  air.  Invented  by  Torricelli  in  1643.  See 
"Torricelli,"  Vol.  II,  p.  120;  also  Pascal's  test  of  the  barometer 
by  ascending  a  mountain  and  noting  the  lowering  of  the  column 
of  mercury,  see  Vol.  II,  p.  122. 

Bicycle.  A  familiar  two-wheeled  vehicle,  the  most  primitive 
form  of  which  (termed  the  hobby  horse)  was  introduced  by 
Baron  Von  Drais  in  France  about  the  year  1818.  The  halting 
stages  by  which  the  machine  was  perfected  illustrate  the  rarity 

[16] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

of  creative  imagination.  See  "From  Cart  to  Automobile,"  Vol. 
VII,  p.  152. 

Biograph.  An  apparatus  for  producing  "moving  pictures," 
familiar  under  various  names.  The  germ  of  the  instrument  was 
invented  as  long  ago  as  1833,  but  the  developed  apparatus  came 
into  being  late  in  the  nineteenth  century.  For  the  story  of  its 
development,  see  "Chrono-photography,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  248. 

Biology.  A  generic  name  for  the  sciences  that  deal  with 
living  things,  including  botany,  zoology,  physiology,  in  their 
various  departments,  and  in  the  widest  interpretation,  medicine, 
anthropology,  and  ethnology.  The  word  biology  was  introduced 
independently  by  Lamarck  and  Trevirans  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  but  did  not  come  at  once  into  general  use.  See  "Schlei- 
den  and  Schwann  and  the  Cell  Theory,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  118.  For  the 
work  of  Lamarck,  Goethe,  Darwin,  and  others,  see  "Theories  of 
Organic  Evolution,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  140. 

Blast  Furnace.  A  furnace  for  smelting  ores,  so  called  because 
of  the  blast  of  air  forced  through  the  furnace  to  promote  com- 
bustion by  bringing  oxygen  in  contact  with  the  fuel;  or  through 
the  molten  metal  itself,  as  in  the  manufacture  of  steel.  See 
"The  Conversion  of  Iron  Ore  into  Iron  and  Steel,"  Vol.  VI, 
p.  283. 

Blood  Corpuscles.  Microscopic  cells  that  float  in  the  blood 
and  perform  functions  absolutely  essential  to  the  life  of  the 
organism.  The  red  blood  corpuscles  are  the  carriers  of  oxygen; 
the  white  corpuscles,  of  several  types,  are  scavengers,  attacking 
and  consuming  noxious  bacteria.  For  a  description  of  the  dis- 
covery of  the  course  of  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  the  final 
demonstration  of  the  corpuscles  passing  through  the  capillaries,  see 
"The  Coming  of  Harvey,"  Vol.  II,  p.  169.  For  an  explanation  of 
the  function  of  blood  corpuscles,  see  "Blood  Corpuscles,  Muscles, 
and  Glands,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  135. 

Brain.  In  general  terms,  that  part  of  the  cerebrospinal  axis 
which  is  contained  in  the  cranium.  For  functions  of,  see  "The 
New  Science  of  Experimental  Psychology,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  245. 

Bronze.  A  compound  of  metals,  having  copper  for  its  base, 
the  other  ingredient  being  usually  tin.  The  proportion  of  copper 
in  various  bronzes  is  usually  between  80  and  90  per  cent.  Copper 
melts  at  a  temperature  a  little  below  that  of  gold,  and  the  ease 
with  which  it  is  smelted  led  (as  is  believed)  to  its  use  long  before 
the  art  of  smelting  iron  had  been  acquired. 

[17] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Calcium  Carbide.  A  compound  of  calcium  and  carbon  (Ca  C2), 
produced  in  the  electric  furnace  by  heating  a  mixture  of  lime  and 
coke.  When  brought  in  contact  with  water,  a  chemical  recom- 
bination is  effected  whereby  acetylene  gas  (C2  H2)  is  produced. 
The  change  is  chemically  expressed  thus:  Ca  C2+H2  O=C2  H2+ 
Ca  O.  See  "The  Introduction  of  Acetylene  Gas,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  212. 

Calotype  Process.  A  photographic  process  invented  by  Fox 
Talbot  (q.  v.);  the  prototype  of  modern  paper-printed  photo- 
graphs, as  distinguished  from  the  metallic-surface  process  of 
Daguerre.  See  "Talbot's  Calotype  Process,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  227. 

Camera  Lucida.  An  instrument  in  which,  through  the  use  of 
prisms,  light  is  refracted  and  reflected  in  such  a  way  as  to  throw 
the  image  of  a  landscape  or  other  view  on  a  ground-glass  plate, 
where  its  outlines  may  be  readily  sketched. 

Camera  Obscura.  Essentially,  as  its  name  implies,  a  dark 
chamber,  into  which  a  single  ray  of  light  is  admitted  through  a 
pinhole  aperture.  The  small  aperture  has  the  effect  of  a  lens, 
and  an  image  of  the  scene  outside  is  thrown  on  the  wall  of  the 
chamber  opposite  the  aperture.  The  photographic  camera  is  a 
modified  camera  obscura,  in  which  the  light  is  focused  by  a 
lens.  It  is  possible  to  take  a  photograph,  of  rather  vague  out- 
line, by  using  a  very  small  aperture,  without  a  lens. 

Candle.  This  familiar  modified  form  of  lamp,  consisting  es- 
sentially of  a  wick  embedded  in  a  solid  cylinder  of  wax,  tallow, 
or  other  easily  liquefied,  inflammable  fat,  was  invented  late  in 
the  twelfth  century.  For  centuries  it  was  the  best  of  lighting 
apparatuses,  and  it  has  by  no  means  been  supplanted  altogether 
even  in  our  day.  For  the  general  description  of  methods  of 
illumination,  past  and  present,  see  "The  Banishment  of  Night," 
Vol.  VI,  p.  201. 

Carbonic  Acid  Gas.  A  compound  of  carbon  and  oxygen, 
having  the  formula  C  O2.  It  is  given  off  through  the  lungs  by 
animal  organisms,  and  is  absorbed  by  plants,  which  thus  secure 
the  carbon  that  enters  so  importantly  into  the  vegetable 
structure.  Another  and  still  more  poisonous  compound  of 
carbon  oxygen  is  known  as  carbonic  oxide  (C  O).  Both  these 
gases  are  sometimes  present  in  mines.  See  "Conditions  to  be 
Considered  in  Mining,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  247,  and  "The  Function  of 
Respiration,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  92. 

Cathode  Rays.  A  peculiar  manifestation  of  energy  due  to 
passing  an  electrical  current  through  a  vacuum  tube.  These 
rays  cast  a  shadow  and  are  deflected  by  a  magnet;  and,  by  im- 

[18] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

pinging  on  the  glass  receptacles,  they  generate  X-rays.  See 
"Professor  J.  J.  Thomson  and  the  Nature  of  Electricity,"  Vol.  V, 
p.  92,  for  the  investigations  of  Crookes,  Leonard,  Roentgen, 
Becquerel,  Thompson,  and  others. 

Cell,  (i)  The  unit  structure  of  living  tissues.  See  Vol.  IV, 
p.  115,  for  the  investigations  of  Brown,  Schleiden,  Schwann, 
Von  Mohl,  and  Virchow;  also  "The  Mechanism  oi  the  Cell," 
Vol.  V,  p.  225.  (2)  The  unit  structure  of  a  galvanic  battery  as 
devised  originally  by  Galvani  and  Volta.  See  "Electricity,"  of 
the  present  index. 

Centrosome.  A  minute  structure  (discovered  by  Van  Beneden) 
within  the  organic  cell,  the  precise  function  of  which  is  in  doubt. 

Chemical  Affinity.  A  term  designating  the  attractive  and 
selective  influence  that  operates  between  chemical  substances. 
The  preference  of  the  various  chemical  atoms  are  perfectly 
definite  and  unvarying,  under  given  conditions,  and  the  entire 
science  of  chemistry  is  built  upon  the  knowledge  of  such  inter- 
relations between  the  different  elementary  atoms;  but  this  knowl- 
edge is,  in  each  case,  matter  of  experimental  observation.  See 
"Chemical  Affinity,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  57. 

Chemistry.  The  science  that  deals  with  the  interrelations  of 
the  different  kinds  of  matter,  as  regards  their  elementary  or 
atomic  structure.  The  border-line  between  chemistry  and 
physics  is  not  always  quite  sharply  defined  (as,  for  example,  in 
the  matter  of  radio-activity,  which  encroaches  upon  both  do- 
mains), but  in  general  chemistry  deals  with  atoms  themselves; 
physics  with  the  aggregations  of  atoms  which  we  call  molecules. 
Thus  it  was  the  province  of  the  chemist  to  determine  that  water 
is  a  compound  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and  that  air  is  a  mixture 
of  nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  other  gases;  while  the  study  of  such 
things  as  hydrostatic  pressure,  the  expansion  of  gases,  etc.,  be- 
longs to  the  physicist.  See  "The  Beginnings  of  Modern  Chemis- 
try," Vol.  IV,  p.  II,  and  "Chemistry  Since  the  Time  of  Dalton," 
Vol.  IV,  p.  38. 

Chimney.  This  seemingly  essential  architectural  element  of 
the  dwelling-house  was  not  known  in  antiquity,  but  was  de- 
veloped in  the  Middle  Ages,  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  modern 
period.  See  Vol.  IX,  p.  150. 

China.  A  name  applied  to  various  kinds  of  glazed  pottery,  the 
exact  implications  of  the  word  not  being  very  closely  defined. 
See  "The  Products  of  Clay  and  Fire,"  Vol.  IX,  p.  227. 

Chisel.    This  familiar  implement  for  gouging  and  cutting  wood, 

[19] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

indispensable  to  the  carpenter,  is  really  a  sharp-edged  wedge, 
and  operates  on  the  principle  of  the  inclined  plane.  It  has  been 
used,  practically  unmodified,  from  a  very  early  period. 

Chloroform.  A  compound  prepared  by  cautiously  distilling 
together  a  mixture  of  alcohol,  water,  and  chloride  of  lime. 
Chemical  symbol  C  H  C13.  The  use  of  chloroform  as  an  anaesthetic 
was  introduced  by  the  Scottish  surgeon,  Sir  J.  Y.  Simpson;  not, 
however,  until  the  anaesthetic  power  of  ether  had  been  clearly 
demonstrated  by  Morton  in  America.  See  "Painless  Surgery," 
Vol.  IV,  p.  208. 

Choke-damp.  A  colloquial  name  for  carbonic  acid  gas  (C  O2) 
when  found  in  mines.  The  name  is  used  (in  contradistinction  to 
the  explosive  "fire-damps")  because  this  gas  is  non-explosive, 
but  may  cause  death  by  asphyxiation — literally  choking  the 
miner  to  death.  See  "Conditions  to  be  Considered  in  Mining," 
Vol.  VI,  p.  247. 

Chromosomes.  Minute,  usually  thread-like  structures  within 
the  organic  cell  nucleus,  which  have  peculiar  interest  because 
their  number  varies  in  different  animals,  but  is  always  the  same 
for  each  cell  of  any  given  species.  The  chromosomes  are 
bisected  when  the  cell  divides.  See  pp.  131-134  of  Vol.  V  for 
recent  researches  in  this  field. 

Chronometer.  Generically,  any  time-measurer;  but  specifically 
a  name  for  the  nautical  watch  or  clock  carried  in  duplicate  or 
triplicate  by  navigators  and  explorers,  which  records  the  time 
at  a  given  meridian  (usually  that  of  Greenwich),  thus  supplying 
information  with  the  aid  of  which  the  navigator  may  compute 
his  longitude  from  sidereal  observations.  See  "Perfecting  the 
Chronometer,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  23. 

Chrono-photography.  Generic  name  applied  to  the  method  of 
taking  series  of  photographs  at  brief  intervals,  to  the  end  that 
"moving  pictures"  may  be  produced.  The  apparatuses  with  which 
these  pictures  are  reproduced  are  familiar  under  the  trade  names 
of  kinetoscope,  biograph,  vitascope,  etc.  Names  of  Muybridge, 
Marey,  Anschiitz,  and  Edison  are  associated  with  the  invention. 
See  "Chrono-photography — Moving  Pictures,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  248. 

Circuit.  The  medium  or  mediums  connecting  the  poles  of  a 
battery  or  other  generator  of  electricity.  The  ground,  or  a  body 
of  water,  may  serve  as  the  medium  of  the  so-called  "return 
circuit";  but  some  conducting  medium  must  give  unbroken  com- 
munication (however  circuitous  the  route)  or  the  current  will 

[20] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 

not  "flow."  See  "The  Experiments  of  Stephen  Gray,"  Vol.  II, 
p.  262;  "The  Transmission  of  Power,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  194. 

Civilization.  Name  somewhat  loosely  applied  to  the  most  re- 
cent stage  of  ethnical  development,  in  contradistinction  to 
"savagery"  and  "barbarism."  In  the  terminology  of  some  ethnol- 
ogists, the  word  "civilized"  is  reserved  for  peoples  that  have 
acquired  the  art  of  writing. 

Clock.  The  modern  apparatus  bearing  this  name  is  usually 
actuated  either  by  weight  and  pulley,  by  pendulum,  or  by  coiled 
springs.  The  most  familiar  type,  the  pendulum  clock,  was  in- 
vented by  Huyghens  in  1656.  The  clypsedra,  or  water  clock,  was 
the  most  usual  time-measurer  throughout  antiquity.  See  "In- 
struments of  Precision  in  the  Age  of  Newton,"  Vol.  II,  p.  256. 

Coal-tar  Colors.  Pigments  of  an  almost  infinite  variety  of 
colors  and  shades  of  color  produced  from  the  distillation 
products  of  coal-tar,  the  basal  form  of  which  is  known  as  aniline. 
The  first  commercially  important  aniline  color  was  produced 
by  Perkin  in  1856.  In  recent  years,  coal-tar  colors  have  revolu- 
tionized the  indigo  and  alizarine  industries.  See  "The  Coal-tar 
Colors,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  311. 

Coherer.  A  very  delicate  instrument,  in  the  original  Marconi 
system,  consisting  essentially  of  brass  filings  in  a  vacuum  tube, 
with  the  aid  of  which  the  Hertzian  waves  used  in  wireless 
telegraphy  are  detected.  Coherers  were  invented  independently 
by  Prof.  D.  E.  Hughes  (1880)  and  Dr.  Branly  (1890-91).  See 
"Wireless  Telegraphy,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  52. 

Cohesion.  The  property  in  virtue  of  which  bodies  tend  to 
hold  together.  The  precise  nature  of  this  inter-molecular  force 
is  not  clearly  established;  it  may  be  identical  with  gravitation. 

Collodion-emulsion  Process.  A  photographic  process  de- 
pendent upon  the  use  of  sensitized  emulsion,  the  basis  of  which 
is  collodion.  The  process  was  introduced  by  Bolton  and  Sayce 
in  1864,  and  gave  a  new  impetus  to  photography.  Subsequently, 
gelatine  was  very  generally  substituted  for  collodion  in  making 
the  emulsion.  See  "Photography  in  its  Scientific  Aspects," 
Vol.  VIII,  p.  231. 

Color-photography.  The  attempt  to  reproduce  the  natural 
colors  photographically  has  enlisted  the  efforts  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  experimenters,  but  as  yet  has  met  with  only  partial  suc- 
cess, although  very  beautiful  glass  "positives"  may  now  be  made 
with  comparative  ease  by  the  Lumiere  "autochrome"  process. 
See  "Photographing  in  Natural  Colors,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  234. 

[2!] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Comet.  See  "The  Progress  of  Modern  Astronomy,"  Vol.  Ill, 
p.  19;  in  particular  p.  38. 

Compound  Engine.  A  steam  engine  in  which  the  steam,  after 
acting  on  a  piston  in  one  cylinder,  escapes,  not  into  the  air,  but 
into  another  cylinder,  where  it  acts  on  a  second  piston.  A  third 
and  fourth  cylinder  may  be  added  (triple  and  quadruple  expan- 
sion). The  compound  engine  was  invented  by  Hornblower  in 
1784.  See  "Compound  Engines,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  117. 

Conservation  of  Energy.    See  "Energy." 

Cordite.  A  compound  having  great  explosive  energy.  It  is 
composed  of  58  parts  of  nitroglycerine,  37  parts  of  guncotton,  and 
5  parts  vaseline.  It  was  patented  by  Sir  F.  A.  Abel  and  Professor 
(now  Sir  James)  Dewar,  of  England. 

Cosmology.  The  system  of  the  universe  or  cosmos,  as 
variously  interpreted  by  successive  generations  of  astronomers 
and  philosophers.  The  cosmological  system  of  the  Egyptians 
and  Babylonians  were  fantastic;  those  of  the  later  Greeks  and 
Romans  (see  Ptolemy)  conceived  the  earth  as  the  central  body; 
the  true  (helio-centric)  theory  dates  from  Copernicus.  For 
the  cosmological  system  of  the  Egyptians,  see  "Ideas  of  Cos- 
mology," Vol.  I,  p.  41.  For  that  of  the  Babylonians,  see  "Baby- 
lonian Astronomy,"  Vol.  I,  p.  61.  For  the  true  theory,  see  "The 
New  Cosmology,"  Vol.  II,  p.  52. 

Cotton  Fabrics.  Fabrics  made  of  threads  spun  from  fibers  of 
the  seed-pod  of  the  cotton  plant.  Cotton  fabrics  of  great 
delicacy  of  texture  have  been  made  in  India  from  the  earliest 
times.  A  revolution  in  the  cotton  spinning  and  weaving  indus- 
tries was  brought  about,  toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  through  the  inventions  of  Hargreaves,  Arkwright, 
Crompton,  the  Kays,  Cartwright,  and  Jacquard.  See  "An  In- 
dustrial Revolution,"  Vol.  IX,  p.  6;  and  "The  Manufacture  of 
Textiles,"  Vol.  IX,  p.  38. 

Cotton-gin.  An  apparatus  for  separating  the  seeds  from  the 
cotton  fiber,  invented  in  1793  by  Eli  Whitney;  it  effected  a 
virtual  revolution  in  the  cotton-raising  industry.  See  "Eli 
Whitney  and  the  Cotton-gin,"  Vol.  IX,  p.  8. 

Crane.  An  apparatus  (otherwise  known  as  a  derrick)  for 
hoisting  heavy  bodies  with  the  aid  of  ropes  and  pulleys,  actuated 
sometimes  by  hand,  sometimes  by  horse  power,  or  steam,  or 
electricity.  In  its  primitive  form  it  has  been  used  from  the 
earliest  historical  period.  See  "Archimedes  of  Syracuse  and  the 

[22] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

Foundation  of  Mechanics,"  Vol.  I,  p.  196;  and  "Inclined  Planes 
and  Derricks,"  Vol.  IX,  p.  37. 

Cross-staff.  A  primitive  apparatus  for  measuring  the  angle 
between  two  visual  objects,  such  as  two  stars,  or  a  star  and  the 
horizon-line.  It  was  used  by  navigators  from  an  early  period, 
but  was  ultimately  superseded  by  astrolabe  (fifteenth  century) 
and  quadrant  (eighteenth  century).  See  "The  Development  of 
the  Sextant,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  18. 

Crowbar.  A  simple  lever,  which,  now  made  of  iron  or  steel 
instead  of  wood,  performs  the  same  service  for  the  modern 
workman  that  it  did  for  his  prehistoric  ancestor. 

Cupping-glass.  A  glass  cup,  which  becomes  a  suction  appa- 
r£tus  through  the  exhaustion  of  air  within  it;  much  used  by- 
physicians  in  the  days  when  venesection  was  in  vogue,  but  now 
practically  obsolete. 

Cyclone.  A  revolving  atmospheric  current,  describing  a  circle 
that  may  be  a  few  feet  or  many  miles  in  diameter.  The  uni- 
versality of  cyclonic  air  currents  was  first  prominently  taught 
by  H.  W.  Dove,  about  1827.  See  "Cyclones  and  Anti-cyclones," 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  199- 

Daguerreotype.  The  form  of  photograph  (using  a  metal  sur- 
face, and  giving  a  reversed  image)  invented  by  Louis  J.  M. 
Daguerre  about  1839.  The  process  is  still  much  employed  for 
the  cheap  photographs  called  tin-types.  See  "Photography  in 
its  Scientific  Aspects,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  224. 

Darwinian  Theory.  The  theory  of  evolution  (which  owed  its 
development  to  Charles  Darwin,  though  independently  con- 
ceived by  Alfred  Russell  Wallace),  which  explains  organic  evo- 
lution as  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  preservation  of  favorable 
varieties  or  stocks  through  "natural  selection."  The  essentials 
of  the  theory,  stated  in  a  phrase,  are  spontaneous  (i.e.,  unex- 
plained) variation,  and  (in  Herbert  Spencer's  phrase)  the  "sur- 
vival of  the  fittest."  Perhaps  no  other  theory  in  the  entire  his- 
tory of  thought  ever  had  so  important  an  influence  on  the  ideas 
of  a  generation  as  this  theory  exercised.  See  "Theories  of 
Organic  Evolution,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  140. 

Derrick.    See  Crane. 

Diamond  Drill.  A  drill  for  boring  through  rock,  the  cutting 
edge  being  made  of  a  ring  of  black  diamonds.  See  "The  Mineral 
Depths,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  247,  and  "Other  Sources  of  Diamonds; 
Practical  Uses,"  Vol.  IX,  p.  317. 

[23] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Direct  Current.  A  current  of  electricity  generated  by  a 
dynamo  provided  with  a  system  of  commutators  through  which 
the  electric  impulses  are  made  to  flow  in  one  direction,  instead 
of  oscillating  as  they  do  in  the  so-called  alternating  current. 
For  fuller  information  see  the  subject  "Electricity,"  and  its 
various  departments. 

Dissipation  of  Energy.    See  Energy. 

Dissociation.  A  hypothetical  chemical  process  (so  named  by 
Ste.  Claire  Deville),  according  to  which  the  chemical  atoms  in 
any  compound  are  constantly  separating  and  reuniting.  See 
"Chemical  Affinity,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  57. 

Ductless  Glands.  Certain  glands  in  the  animal  body  that  have 
no  excretory  ducts,  their  functions  being  performed  through  the 
channels  of  the  vascular  and  lymphatic  vessels.  The  spleen,  the 
thyroid  gland,  and  the  supra-renal  capsules  are  important  ex- 
amples of  this  type  of  gland.  See  "Blood  Corpuscles,  Muscles, 
and  Glands,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  135. 

Dye.  The  generic  name  given  to  coloring  matters  in  trans- 
parent mediums;  suitable  therefore  for  coloring  fabrics  or  stain- 
ing surfaces  without  providing  a  protective  covering  such  as  is 
given  by  paints  proper.  The  distinction  between  dyes  and  paints 
is,  however,  not  always  very  clearly  adhered  to.  See  "Paints, 
Dyes,  and  Varnishes,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  314. 

Dynamics.  The  science  that  deals  with  the  motions  of  bodies, 
and  with  the  forces  that  actuate  these  motions;  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  "statics,"  which  deals  with  stationary  bodies. 

Dynamo.  The  apparatus,  consisting  essentially  of  a  coil  of 
wire  conveying  a  current  of  electricity  and  made  to  revolve  in 
a  magnetic  field,  which  transforms  molar  energy  (usually  sup- 
plied by  a  steam  engine  or  by  a  water-wheel)  into  electrical 
energy.  The  multitudinous  practical  applications  of  electricity 
to  the  supplying  and  transmitting  of  power  (trolleys,  elevators, 
etc.)  are  dependent  upon  the  dynamo,  the  perfecting  of  which 
took  place  late  in  the  nineteenth  century.  See  "Man's  Newest 
Co-laborer:  The  Dynamo,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  171.  For  Faraday's  ex- 
periments leading  up  to  the  development  of  the  dynamo,  see 
"Faraday  and  Electro-magnetic  Induction,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  240. 

Dynamo-electric  Machines.  Name  originally  applied  to  all 
machines  intended  to  perform  work  with  the  aid  of  electricity, 
subsequently  contracted  to  "dynamo." 

[24] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

Electric  Light  The  light  engendered  by  rendering  a  badly- 
conducting  material  incandescent  by  passing  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity through  it.  The  possibility  of  producing  light  in  this  way 
was  discovered  by  Davy  early  in  the  nineteenth  century;  but 
no  commercial  use  was  made  of  the  discovery  till  the  middle  of 
the  century;  and  the  first  important  commercial  light  (the 
Jablochkoff  "candle")  was  not  invented  till  1876.  Brush's  arc 
light  followed;  and  Edison's  incandescent  light  is  still  more 
recent.  See  "The  Banishment  of  Night,"  Vol.  VT,  p.  218. 

Electricity.  A  familiar  but  inscrutable  manifestation  of 
energy,  having  for  its  unit  structure,  according  to  the  most 
recent  theory  (J.  J.  Thomson),  an  infinitesimal  corpuscle,  or 
electron.  Frictional  electricity  (e.g.,  due  to  rubbing  amber) 
was  known  to  the  ancients;  galvanic  electricity  was  discovered 
by  Galvani  and  Volta;  dynamic  electricity  has  been  placed  at 
the  service  of  man  in  our  own  generation.  For  the  earliest  ex- 
periments in  electricity,  see  "William  Gilbert  and  the  Study  of 
Magnetism,"  Vol.  II,  p.  in;  also,  "Progress  in  Electricity  from 
Gilbert  and  Von  Guericke  to  Franklin,"  Vol.  II,  p.  259;  "The 
Modern  Development  of  Electricity  and  Magnetism,"  Vol.  Ill, 
p.  229;  "Prof.  J.  J.  Thomson  and  the  Nature  of  Electricity," 
Vol.  V,  p.  92.  For  such  subjects  as  "The  Electric  Telegraph," 
"Electric  Railways,"  "Electric  Lighting,"  the  reader  is  referred 
to  chapters  under  these  headings  in  this  index  and  the  general 
index. 

Electric  Railways.  Electricity  as  a  traction  power  owes  its 
popularity  simply  to  the  fact  that  it  can  be  transmitted  con- 
veniently to  a  distance  over  a  wire  (trolley)  or  third  rail,  or 
(less  importantly)  in  a  so-called  storage  battery.  The  initial  ex- 
periments in  this  line  were  made  as  early  as  1835  (Thomas 
Davenport);  a  little  later  (1847-1857),  Thomas  Hall,  Dr.  Colton, 
and  Prof.  C.  C.  Page  continued  the  work,  followed  by  a 
host  of  others.  Galvanic  cells  and  storage  batteries  were  first 
used  with  some  success,  but  the  dynamo  presently  superseded 
other  generators,  although  the  storage  battery,  as  perfected  by 
Edison,  again  entered  the  field  prominently  in  1910.  See  "The 
Development  of  Electric  Railways,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  175. 

Electro-chemistry.  An  important  branch  of  practical  chemis- 
try, that  finds  application  in  a  multitude  of  commercial  indus- 
tries. The  activities  involved  are  chiefly  either  (i)  the  prin- 
ciple of  electrolysis,  whereby  chemicals  are  dissociated  (as,  for 

[25] 


KEY  AND   INDEX 

example,  in  copper-plating,  silver-plating,  etc.)  in  solution;  or 
(2)  the  agency  of  high  temperatures,  as  developed  in  the  elec- 
tric furnace,  whereby  substances  are  decomposed  and  purified 
or  allowed  to  reunite  in  new  compounds.  See  "Humphry  Davy 
and  Electro-chemistry,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  46.  The  use  of  electro- 
chemistry is  the  development  of  the  first  telegraphs.  See 
"Galvanism  Gives  a  New  Stimulus  to  Inventors,"  Vol.  VIII, 
p.  ii.  In  connection  with  the  reproduction  of  illustrations,  see 
"The  Introduction  of  Process  Work,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  202. 

Electrolysis.  The  dissociation  or  decompounding  of  sub- 
stances in  solution  through  the  passage  of  electric  currents.  In 
a  solution  of  silver  salts,  for  example,  the  silver  (being 
"electro-positive")  passes  to  the  negative  pole  (cathode)  and  is 
there  deposited.  This  is  the  action  in  the  practical  process  of 
electro-plating.  Similarly,  solutions  of  copper  compounds  are 
used  to  plate  surfaces  with  copper,  as  in  making  the  plates  from 
which  books,  half-tone  pictures,  etc.,  are  printed.  See  "The 
Introduction  of  Process  Work,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  202.  Cavendish's 
decomposition  of  the  water  atom  by  the  use  of  electricity,  Vol. 
IV,  p.  14.  See  also  "Electro-chemistry"  of  this  index. 

Electro-magnetism.  A  manifestation  of  energy  due  to  the 
curious  relations  that  exist  between  magnetism  and  electricity, 
whereby,  under  certain  circumstances,  one  may  be  induced  by 
the  other.  See  "Faraday  and  Electro-magnetic  Induction,"  Vol. 
Ill,  p.  240.  See  also  in  the  present  index,  "Dynamo,"  "Elec- 
tricity," "Electron,"  "Hertzian  Waves." 

Electron.  The  hypothetical  unit  structure  of  electricity,  the 
theory  of  which  has  been  chiefly  developed  by  Prof.  J.  J.  Thom- 
son. The  negative  electron  is  believed  to  have  about  one  one- 
thousandth  the  mass  of  the  hydrogen  atom.  It  may  be  the 
basis  of  all  matter.  Professor  Thomson  made  tentative  an- 
nouncement of  the  probable  discovery  of  the  positive  electron 
in  1910.  See  "Professor  J.  J.  Thomson  and  the  Nature  of  Elec- 
tricity," Vol.  V,  p.  92. 

Electro-plating.    See  Electrolysis. 

Element.  The  final  chemical  analysis,  so  far  as  at  present 
achieved,  resolves  all  known  forms  of  matter  into  seventy-odd 
so-called  elements,  each  having  an  atomic  structure,  which  re- 
sists further  dissociation,  and  which  presents  definite  and  charac- 
teristic properties  of  size  and  chemical  valency.  Their  names 
and  atomic  weights  are: 


[26 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 


Aluminum 

....Al 

27.1 

Molybdenum  .  . 

...Mo 

96. 

Antimony  

....Sb 

120.2 

Neodymium   .  .  . 

...Nd 

143-6 

Argon  

A 

39-9 

Neon    

...Ne 

20. 

Arsenic  

....As 

75- 

Nickel     

...Ni 

58-7 

Bromine    

Br 

79.96 

Niobium    

...Nb 

94- 

Barium   

.  .  .  .  Ba 

137-4 

Nitrogen   

....N 

14.04 

Beryllium  

....Be 

9.1 

Osmium    

...Os 

191. 

Bidymium  

.  .  .  .  Di 

142. 

Oxygen    

....0 

16. 

Bismuth    

....Bi 

208.5 

Palladium    

...Pd 

106.5 

Boron   

B 

n. 

Phosphorus  

....P 

31. 

Cadmium  

.  .  .  .  Cd 

112.4 

Platinum    

...Pt 

194.8 

Caesium   

.  .  .  .  Cs 

133- 

Potassium  

....K 

39-15 

Calcium    

.  .  .  .  Ca 

40.1 

Praseodymium    . 

...Pr 

140.5 

Carbon    

C 

12. 

Radium    

.  ..Ra 

225. 

Cerium    

....Ce 

140. 

Rhodium   

...Rh 

103. 

Chlorine     

.  .  .  .  Cl 

35-45 

Rubidium    

.  ..Rb 

85.4 

Chromium 

.  .  .  .  Cr 

52.1 

Ruthenium    .... 

.  ..Ru 

101.7 

Cobalt    

....Co 

59- 

Samarium  

..Sm 

150- 

Columbium  .  .  . 

....Cb 

93-5 

Scandium   

...Sc 

44.1 

Copper    

....Cu 

63.6 

Selenium    

...Se 

79.2 

Dysprosium    .  . 

....Dy 

162.5 

Silicon    

....Si 

28.4 

Erbium  ,  . 

.  .  .  .  Er 

1  66. 

Silver   

...Ag 

107.93 

Europium    .... 

.  .  .  .  Eu 

152. 

Sodium    

.  ..Na 

23-05 

Fluorine   

F 

19. 

Strontium  

...Sr 

87.62 

Gadolinium  ... 

....Gd 

156. 

Sulphur    

....S 

32.06 

Gallium    

.  .  .  .  Ga 

70- 

Tantalum  

.  ..Ta 

183- 

Germanium  .  .  . 

.  ...Ge 

72.5 

Tellurium    

...Te 

127.6 

Gold   

....Au 

197.2 

Terbium  

...Tb 

1  60. 

Helium    

....He 

4- 

Thallium  

...Tl 

204.1 

Hydrogen 

H 

1.008 

Thorium    

.  ..Th 

232-5 

Indium    

....In 

114. 

Thulium  

...Ta 

171. 

Iodine    

I 

126.85 

Tin    

...Sn 

119. 

Iridium    , 

Ir 

193- 

Titanium    

...Ti 

48.1 

Iron  

....Fe 

55-9 

Tungsten    

...W 

184- 

Krypton  

....Kr 

87.8 

Uranium    

....U 

238.5 

Lanthanum  .  .  . 

....La 

138.9 

Vanadium   

....V 

51-2 

Lead  

....Pb 

206.9 

Xenon    

....X 

128. 

....Li 

7-03 

Ytterbium  

...Yb 

173- 

Lutecium  

....Lu 

174- 

(Neoytterbium) 

Magnesium 

...MR 

24.36 

Yttrium   

....Y 

89- 

Manganese    .  .  . 

...Mn 

55- 

Zinc    

...Zn 

654 

Mercury   

...-Hff 

200. 

Zirconium    

...Zr 

90.6 

[27] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Elevator.  The  contrivance  (in  England  called  a  "lift")  for 
conveying  passengers  and  freight  to  the  upper  stories  of  build- 
ings, through  which  the  modern  skyscraper  has  been  made 
tenantable.  The  earlier  forms  were  operated  by  a  piston-rod 
resting  on  a  water  cushion,  but  for  very  high  buildings  the  elec- 
tric elevator  has  practical  monopoly.  See  "Elevator  or  'Lift,' " 
Vol.  IX,  p.  169. 

Embryology.  The  science  that  deals  with  the  development  of 
the  embryo  while  in  the  egg  or  womb.  The  study  is  highly 
important  in  its  bearing  on  physiological  and  evolutionary 
problems.  See  "The  Cell  Theory  Elaborated,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  122, 
for  the  studies  of  Schwann,  von  Baer,  Miiller,  and  Carpenter. 

Energy.  The  capacity  to  do  work.  Energy  may  be  potential, 
as  represented  by  a  stone  held  in  the  hand;  or  kinetic  (operative), 
as  when  the  stone  is  dropped.  Various  manifestations  of  energy 
(as  molar  motion,  molecular  activity,  heat,  electricity)  may  be 
transmuted  one  into  another;  but  energy  can  be  neither  created 
nor  destroyed  (doctrine  of  the  conservation  of  energy;  see 
Mayer,  Joule,  Helmholtz).  There  is,  however,  a  seeming  loss 
of  energy  from  the  solar  system,  through  the  constant  sending 
out  of  radiant  heat.  See  "The  Conservation  of  Energy,"  Vol. 
Ill,  p.  253;  "Lord  Kelvin  and  the  Dissipation  of  Energy,"  Vol. 
Ill,  p.  274;  "How  Work  is  Done,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  29. 

Engines.  See  Atmospheric  e.,  Electric  e.,  Gas  e.,  Hot-air  e., 
Piston  e.,  Steam  e.,  and  Water  e.,  and  "Captive  Molecules:  The 
Story  of  the  Steam  Engline,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  79;  "The  Master 
Worker,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  no;  "Gas  and  Oil  Engines,"  Vol.  VI, 
P-  133- 

Epicycles,  Theory  of.  A  theory  invented  or  elaborated  by 
Hipparchus  (second  century  B.C.)  to  explain  the  observed  fact 
that  the  sun  spends  more  time  on  one  side  of  the  equator  than 
on  the  other,  and  that  the  moon  and  planets  show  similar  irreg- 
ularities of  action.  The  theory  supposes  that  the  circling 
bodies  describe  minor  circles  about  invisible  centers.  These 
fictitious  epicycles  continued  to  be  evoked  by  astronomers  until 
Kepler  discovered  that  the  true  explanation  of  the  observed 
anomalies  is,  not  that  the  bodies  describe  minor  circles 
(epicycles),  but  that  their  orbit  is  elliptical.  The  theory  of 
epicycles  was  thus  shown  to  be  utterly  untenable;  yet  it  had 
seemed  to  offer  a  valid  explanation  of  observed  phenomena. 
See  "Hipparchus,  'The  Lover  of  Truth,'"  Vol.  I,  p.  233;  "The 
New  Cosmology,"  Vol.  II,  p.  74- 

[28] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

Etching.  A  process  of  engraving,  in  which  the  artist  scratches 
the  waxed  surface  of  the  metallic  plate  with  a  pointed  instru- 
ment, the  mechanical  process  being  completed  by  the  action  of 
acids,  which  "bite"  the  plate  only  in  places  thus  exposed.  See 
-Etching,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  195. 

Ether.  The  hypothetical  substance  filling  all  space,  "pene- 
trating between  the  molecules  of  matter  as  air  between  the 
leaves  of  trees."  One  theory  of  matter  supposes  all  material 
substances  to  be  composed  of  vortex  rings  of  ether.  Undula- 
tions in  the  ethereal  medium  are  supposed  to  constitute  the 
manifestations  which  our  senses  interpret  as  light  and  radiant 
heat.  For  the  investigation  of  the  early  workers,  such  as 
Young  and  Clerk-Maxwell,  to  the  most  recent,  see  "The  Ether 
and  Ponderable  Matter,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  283. 

Evolution,  The  Theory  of  Organic.  The  doctrine  which 
teaches  that  higher  organic  forms  have  developed  sequentially 
from  lower  ones,  through  various  channels,  all  of  which  lead 
back  to  a  primordial  form  of  proto-plasmic  being.  See  Darwin, 
Erasmus  Darwin,  Lamarck,  Haeckel,  and  "Theories  of  Organic 
Evolution,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  140. 

Faraday  Tubes.  Lines  of  magnetic  force,  as  observed  by 
Faraday,  and  theoretically  explained  by  him.  These  "tubes" 
radiate  in  all  directions  into  space,  in  loops  of  all  sizes,  which 
connect  the  poles  of  a  magnet.  They  have  been  invoked  to 
explain  many  phenomena  of  nature,  including  "action  at  a  dis- 
tance." See  "Modern  Views,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  153. 

Fire-damp.  Name  given  by  miners  to  the  explosive  or  in- 
flammable gases  that  sometimes  develop  in  mines,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  non-explosive  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  they  term 
"choke  damp."  See  "Carbon  Dioxide  Gas,"  of  the  present  index. 

Fossil  Beds.  Strata  containing  large  numbers  of  fossils; 
usually  from  remains  originally  deposited  in  an  ancient  lake 
bed.  Some  of  the  most  important  fossil  beds  are  found  in  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region.  See  "The  New  Science  of  Paleon- 
tology," Vol.  Ill,  p.  74. 

Fossil  Horse.  Remains  of  this  animal,  as  found  in  the  fossil 
beds  of  western  America,  had  peculiar  interest,  as  they  gave 
tangible  evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  evolution  of  hypothesis. 
See  "The  New  Science  of  Paleontology,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  105. 

Fossil  Man.  Remains  of  prehistoric  man,  study  of  which  has 
demonstrated  the  great  antiquity  of  the  human  race.  Finds  of 

[29] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

this  character  are  always  of  interest,  but  are  no  longer  startling 
as  they  were  at  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  the 
"age  of  man"  was  supposed  to  compass  a  mere  six  thousand 
years.  See  "The  New  Science  of  Paleontology,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  98. 
Friction.  The  motion-retarding  influence  exerted  by  one  sur- 
face against  another,  or  by  a  gas  or  liquid  acting  on  another  gas 
or  liquid  or  on  a  solid.  Friction  is  responsible  for  enormous  loss 
of  power  in  the  operation  of  all  working  mechanisms;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  were  it  not  for  friction  man  would  not  be  able 
to  handle  tools,  or  even  to  walk.  See  "Other  Means  of  Trans- 
mitting Power,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  35. 

Ganglion  Cells.  Central  nerve  cells,  located  in  the  brain,  the 
spinal  cord,  or  in  the  outlying  plexuses,  which  serve  as  store- 
houses of  nervous  energy.  See  "Functions  of  the  Nerves,"  Vol. 
IV,  p.  259- 

Gas.  Matter  in  the  state  of  tennosity  in  which  its  component 
molecules,  instead  of  being  relatively  close  together  and  more 
or  less  subject  to  the  influence  of  cohesive  forces  (solids, 
liquids),  are  widely  separated,  and  in  rapid  linear  motion,  dart- 
ing hither  and  thither,  and  rebounding  on  contact.  (See  Max- 
well; Kinetic  theory.)  All  kinds  of  matter  assume  the  gaseous 
state  under  proper  conditions  of  pressure  and  temperature. 
Substances  that  are  gaseous  at  ordinary  terrestrial  temperatures 
are  spoken  of  as  "permanent  gases,"  but  the  term  is  a  mis- 
nomer. For  Clerk-Maxwell's  kinetic  theory  of  gases,  see  Vol. 
Ill,  p.  295.  For  the  "Law  of  Avogadro,"  see  Vol.  IV,  p.  57. 
For  recent  experiments  in  liquifying  gases,  see  Vol.  V,  p.  53. 
For  some  recent  discoveries  of  new  gases,  see  Vol.  V,  p.  84. 

Gas  Engine.  An  engine  actuated  by  some  gas  other  than 
steam.  Gas  engines  are  of  recent  development;  the  best-known 
form  being  the  explosion  engine  generally  used  for  automobiles 
and  motor  boats.  See  "Gas  and  Oil  Engines,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  132. 

Gas  Mantle.  A  mantle,  of  which  that  of  Herr  Welsbach  is 
the  type,  composed  of  an  earth  (e.g.,  a  compound  of  thorium 
and  cerium)  which  becomes  incandescent  when  heated  in  a  gas 
flame;  giving  far  more  light  than  would  be  produced  by  the  gas 
flame  itself.  See  "The  Incandescent  Gas  Mantle,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  208. 

Gastric  Juice.  The  digestive  juice  secreted  by  the  stomach. 
It  is  acidulous  (hydrochloric  acid)  and  its  most  characteristic 
and  important  constituent  is  the  ferment  pepsin.  See  "The 
Chemical  Theory  of  Digestion,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  88. 

[30] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

Gears.  Mechanisms  for  transmitting  power,  or  for  changing 
the  direction  of  its  action.  The  toothed  wheel  and  the  bitted 
wheel  are  typical  examples.  See  "Other  Means  of  Transmitting 
Power,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  35. 

Gems.  Minerals,  usually  in  crystalline  form,  the  combined 
beauty  and  rarity  of  which  gives  them  great  commercial  value, 
usually  quite  without  regard  to  any  question  of  practical  utility. 
The  diamond  (a  crystal  of  pure  carbon)  owes  its  popularity  to  its 
hardness,  combined  with  its  high  index  of  refraction;  the  true 
ruby,  sapphire,  and  emerald  are  crystallized  oxides  of  aluminum 
(corundum)  with  traces  of  different  coloring  matters.  Stones 
of  the  corundum  order  are  now  duplicated  in  the  laboratory  on 
a  commercial  scale;  but  laboratory  diamonds  are  as  yet  of  in- 
finitesimal size.  See  "Gems,  Natural  and  Artificial,"  Vol.  IX, 
P-  295- 

Geocentric  Theory.  The  theory  according  to  which  the  earth 
is  the  center  of  the  solar  system.  This  theory  has  universal 
vogue  (notwithstanding  the  protest  of  Aristarchus)  throughout 
antiquity;  the  true  heliocentric  theory  was  put  forward  by 
Copernicus.  See  "Aristarchus  of  Samos,  the  Copernicus  of 
Antiquity,"  Vol.  I,  p.  212. 

Geology.  The  science  that  deals  with  the  origin,  structure, 
and  metamorphoses  of  the  earth's  crust.  It  is,  in  any  compre- 
hensive sense,  a  modern  science,  its  correct  theories  dating  from 
the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  See  "The  Origin  and  De- 
velopment of  Modern  Geology,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  116. 

Geometry.  Literally,  and  in  its  earliest  applications,  the 
science  of  earth  measurement.  As  such  its  elements  were  un- 
derstood by  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Expanded  and  its  chief 
propositions  formulated  by  the  Alexandrian,  Euclid  (300  B.C), 
whose  exposition  is  still  used  in  modern  text-books.  See 
"Euclid,"  Vol.  I,  p.  192. 

Germanium.    See  "Elements"  in  the  present  index. 

Glands.  Secretory  organs,  of  which  there  are  many  types,  as, 
for  example,  the  salivary  glands,  the  peptic  glands  of  the 
stomach,  the  pancreatic  glands,  and  sundry  intestinal  glands. 
See  also  "Ductless  Glands"  of  the  present  index. 

Glass.  A  crystalline  substance,  the  chief  constituent  of  which 
is  silica  (sand),  with  which  varying  proportions  of  potash,  soda, 
and  lime  are  combined.  See  "Glass  and  Glass-Making,"  Vol.  IX, 
P-  277. 

Glass  Negatives.    See  "Photography"  in  the  present  index. 

[31] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Goniometer.  An  implement  for  measuring  solid  angles,  or  the 
inclination  of  planes,  particularly  the  angles  formed  by  the  faces 
of  crystals. 

Gravitation.  The  universal  force  of  attraction  acting  between 
all  masses  of  matter  in  the  universe;  in  virtue  of  which,  as 
demonstrated  by  Newton,  the  power  of  attraction  between  any 
two  bodies  is  directly  as  their  combined  mass  and  inversely  as 
the  square  of  their  distance.  The  nature  of  gravitation  remains 
a  mystery  despite  various  attempts  to  explain  it.  See  "Newton 
and  the  Law  of  Gravitation,"  Vol.  II,  p.  236.  For  Le  Sage's 
theory  of,  see  "Physical  Problems,"  Vol.  V,  p.  213. 

Gyrocar.  Name  given  to  Mr.  Brennan's  monorail  vehicle, 
which  owes  its  stability  to  the  action  of  gyroscopic  wheels.  See 
"The  Gyrocar,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  195. 

Gyroscope.  A  revolving  body;  for  example,  a  top,  a  hoop,  or 
the  earth  itself.  More  technically,  a  wheel  adjusted  in  gimbal 
frames  to  illustrate  the  principles  of  gyroscopic  action;  in  par- 
ticular, the  stability  acquired  by  a  rapidly  revolving  body.  See 
"Gyrocar,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  195,  and  "The  Gyroscope  and  Ocean 
Travel,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  217. 

Gyroscopic  Action.    See  "Gyroscope"  in  the  present  index. 

Heat.  A  manifestation  of  energy  believed  to  represent  active 
molecular  vibration.  These  vibrations  may  set  up  undulations 
in  the  ether,  which  are  interpreted  as  radiant  heat;  these  undu- 
lations can  in  turn  transmit  motion  (i.e.,  "heat")  to  the  molecules 
of  matter  upon  which  they  infringe — as  we  see  illustrated  when 
anything  is  warmed  by  the  sun's  rays.  Heat  was  long  supposed 
to  be  an  "imponderable"  fluid.  The  true  theory  of  heat  was 
developed  by  Count  Rumford,  Carnot,  Mayer,  Joule,  and  Helm- 
holtz.  See  "Modern  Theories  of  Heat  and  Light,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  206. 

Heliocentric  Theory.  The  true  theory  that  the  sun  is  the 
central  body  of  the  planetary  system  was  advocated  in  antiquity 
by  Aristarchus;  but  did  not  gain  currency  until  put  forward  by 
Copernicus  in  the  fifteenth  century.  See  "The  New  Cosmology — 
Copernicus  to  Kepler  and  Galileo,"  Vol.  II,  p.  52. 

Hertzian  Waves.  The  electro-magnetic  waves  in  the  ether 
that  are  utilized  in  wireless  telegraphy.  Named  for  Hertz,  whose 
studies  first  clearly  demonstrated  the  characteristics  of  these 
high-frequency  ethereal  waves.  See  Vol.  Ill,  p.  247;  also  "Wire- 
less Telegraphy,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  47,  and  "The  Wireless  Tele- 
phone," Vol.  VIII,  p.  88. 

[32] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

Histology.  The  science  that  deals  with  the  minute  structure 
of  animal  and  vegetable  tissues.  This  science  depends  very 
largely  upon  the  microscope,  and  has  developed  chiefly  since 
that  instrument  was  perfected.  See  "Lister  and  the  Perfected 
Microscope,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  109. 

Horse  Power.  The  unit  of  work,  as  applied  by  Watt  to  the 
steam  engine.  Watt  assumed  that  a  horse  could  perform  an 
amount  of  labor  equivalent  to  the  raising  of  33,000  pounds  to 
the  height  of  one  foot  in  one  minute;  this  was  doubtless  an  over- 
estimate, but  it  has  remained  the  standard.  See  Vol.  VI,  p.  60. 

Hot-air  Engine.  An  engine  in  which  heated  air  is  used  instead 
of  steam  or  exploded  gas  to  propel  the  piston.  See  "Gas  and 
Oil  Engines,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  132. 

Hydrophobia.    See  "Rabies"  in  the  present  index. 

Hydrostatic  Press.  An  apparatus  for  transmitting  power;  it 
makes  use  of  the  principle  that  pressure  applied  to  a  given  sur- 
face of  a  liquid  is  transmitted  unmodified  to  each  corresponding 
surface  of  the  enclosing  well.  In  practice  a  small  force  applied 
to  a  small  piston  in  a  cylinder  becomes  multiplied  as  transmitted 
to  the  large  piston  of  a  connecting  cylinder.  See  "Hydraulic 
Power,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  74. 

Hydrostatics.  The  science  that  deals  with  the  properties  of 
fluids.  For  Archimedes's  solution  of  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant problems  of  hydrostatic  equilibrium,  see  Vol.  I,  p.  196. 
For  the  experiments  of  Galileo,  see  "Galileo  and  the  Equilibrium 
of  Fluids,"  Vol.  II,  p.  105. 

Hygiene.  The  science  of  health;  in  particular  having  to  do 
with  improvements  in  living,  ventilation,  sanitation,  etc.  See 
"The  Berlin  Institute  of  Hygiene,"  Vol.  V,  p.  193. 

Hypnotism.  Name  given  by  Dr.  Braid  to  the  practice  of  in- 
ducing artificial  somnambulism  in  a  susceptible  subject.  The 
hypnotic  condition  is  subjective,  and  is  indeed  by  suggestion,  not 
by  the  giving  out  of  any  "magnetic"  or  other  occult  influence 
on  the  part  of  the  hypnotist.  See  "Physiological  Psychology," 
Vol.  IV,  p.  266. 

Inclined  Plane.  A  familiar  mechanism  through  the  use  of 
which  heavy  bodies  may  be  raised  to  a  height  with  a  conserva- 
tive use  of  power.  Diodorus  Siculus  records  that  the  Egyptian 
utilized  the  principle  of  the  inclined  plane  in  building  the  pyra- 
mids. See  "Inclined  Planes  and  Derricks,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  37. 

Induction,  Electric.    A  curious  phenomenon,  in  which  an  elec- 

[33] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

trie  current  is  generated  in  a  coil  of  insulated  wire  wound  about 
another  coil,  through  which  a  current  generated  in  the  usual 
way  is  passed.  The  familiar  Faradic  current  is  thus  induced. 
For  a  description  of  the  discovery  of  induction,  see  "Progress  in 
Electricity  from  Gilbert  and  Von  Guericke  to  Franklin,"  Vol. 
II,  p.  259.  For  Faraday's  experiments,  see  Vol.  Ill,  p.  240. 

Inorganic  Matter.  Mineral  compounds  of  whatever  character 
that  have  been  developed  or  compounded  without  the  aid  or 
interposition  of  living  organisms,  vegetable  or  animal. 

Interference  of  Light.  The  collision  of  one  wave  of  light 
(etherial  undulation)  with  another  in  such  a  way  as  to  obstruct 
the  wave,  causing  darkness.  Studies  of  interference  led  Young 
to  the  elaboration  of  the  undulatory  theory  of  light.  See 
"Thomas  Young  and  the  Wave  Theory  of  Light,"  Vol.  Ill, 
P-  215. 

Isomerism.  A  word  coined  by  the  chemist  Berzelius  to  in- 
dicate the  fact,  demonstrated  in  1823  by  Liebig  and  Wohlen, 
that  two  substances  exhibiting  different  physical  properties 
may  have  precisely  the  same  chemical  composition.  See  "Or- 
ganic Chemistry  and  the  Idea  of  the  Molecule,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  53. 

Julian  Calendar.  The  reformed  calendar  of  Julius  Caesar, 
which  adopted  the  Alexandrian  expedient  of  introducing  an  ad- 
ditional day  every  fourth  (leap)  year.  For  comparison  of  this 
calendar  and  with  that  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  calendar,  see 
"Astronomical  Science,"  Vol.  I,  p.  33. 

Kinematograph.     See  Chrono-photography,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  248. 

Kinetic  Theory  (of  gases).  The  theory  that  a  gas  consists 
of  molecules  in  a  state  of  agitation,  describing  a  "free  path"  of 
relatively  great  length  between  successive  impacts  with  other 
molecules.  See  Vol.  Ill,  p.  295. 

Knitting  Machinery.  A  machine  for  knitting  stockings  was 
invented  by  a  Scottish  clergyman,  William  Lee,  in  1589;  a  de- 
velopment that  permitted  the  knitting  of  a  ribbed  surface  was 
introduced  by  Jedediah  Strutt  in  1758;  and  the  circular  knitter 
(producing  a  seamless  stocking)  was  perfected  by  Peter  Claussen 
in  1845-  See  "Lace  Making  and  Knitting  Machinery,"  Vol.  IX, 
P-  55- 

Krupp  SteeL  An  alloy  steel,  containing  nickel,  which  adds 
to  its  hardness  and  gives  it  great  value  for  armoring  ships.  See 
"The  Age  of  Steel,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  295. 

[34] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 

Lamp,  Safety.  A  lamp  invented  by  Humphry  Davy,  for  use 
in  mines,  to  give  protection  against  danger  from  explosion  due 
to  "fire-damp."  The  device  consists  essentially  of  enclosing  the 
lamp  in  wire  gauze.  See  "Conditions  to  be  Considered  in  Min- 
ing," Vol.  VI,  p.  247. 

Latent  Heat.  A  term  introduced  by  Dr.  Joseph  Black  to  apply 
to  the  modicum  of  heat  which  seemingly  disappears  or  becomes 
latent  when  a  substance  changes  its  physical  state,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, when  water  is  transformed  into  steam.  The  heat  reap- 
pears when  the  steam  is  retransformed  into  water.  Black's 
studies  in  this  field  were  probably  a  source  of  inspiration  to  his 
friend  Watt,  in  connection  with  the  perfecting  of  the  steam 
engine.  See  Vol.  VI,  p.  94. 

Latitude.  Distance  north  or  south  from  the  equator,  measured 
in  degrees,  minutes  and  seconds  of  arc.  Latitude  is  determined 
with  comparative  ease  by  the  mariner  through  observation  of 
the  height  of  the  sun  at  meridian,  as  measured  with  the  sextant 
See  "The  Development  of  the  Sextant,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  18. 

Law,  Natural.  The  expression  of  an  observed  sequence  of 
phenomena  in  nature,  so  often  repeated  that  we  are  justified  in 
regarding  the  sequence  as  inevitable. 

Lever.  An  instrument  which,  in  various  modified  forms,  is 
the  most  universally  employed  of  all  instruments  with  which 
work  is  performed.  The  principles  of  the  lever  were  formulated 
by  Archimedes.  See  "How  Work  is  Done,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  29, 

Leyden  Jar.  Name  given  a  simple  apparatus  for  storing  elec- 
tricity generated  by  a  friction  machine,  as  discovered  inde- 
pendently by  Dean  Von  Kleist  and  Pieter  von  Musschenbrock  in 
1745.  The  original  apparatus  of  Von  Kleist  consisted  simply  of 
a  nail  or  a  piece  of  brass  wire  placed  in  a  glass  bottle.  See 
"The  Leyden  Jar  Discovered,"  Vol.  II,  p.  280. 

Light.  The  phenomena  interpreted  by  the  eyes  as  light  and 
color  consists  essentially  of  undulations  in  the  ether,  having 
clearly  defined  upper  and  lower  limits  of  frequency.  This  ex- 
planation of  light  was  demonstrated  by  Young  and  Fresnel; 
and  their  theory  supplanted  the  corpuscular  or  emanation  theory 
that  had  been  championed  by  Newton.  The  undulations  in  the 
ether  that  are  interpreted  as  light  are  induced  by  vibrations  of 
molecules  of  matter  ordinarily  produced  by  excessive  heat;  in 
other  words,  light  is  a  manifestation  of  energy.  See  "Modern 
Theories  of  Heat  and  Light,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  206. 

Lightning.    A  manifestation  of  atmospheric  electricity,  as  wa§ 

[55] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

first  demonstrated  by  Benjamin  Franklin's  classical  experiments 
with  kite  and  key,  made  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  See  "Benjamin  Franklin,"  Vol.  II,  p.  286. 

Lime-light.  A  light  produced  by  heating  a  block  of  lime  to 
incandescence  with  a  blast  of  oxygen  or  gas. 

Liquefaction  of  Gases.  Reducing  gases,  such  as  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  air,  etc.,  to  a  liquid  state.  See  "Low  Temperature 
Researches,"  Vol.  V,  p.  29. 

Liquefied  Air.  See  "Liquefaction  of  Gases"  of  the  present 
index. 

Liquid  Fuel.  The  term  given  to  the  various  oils,  usually  crude 
petroleum,  which  have  come  into  use  recently  as  fuel  for  loco- 
motives, steamships,  etc.  See  "Liquid  Fuel,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  90. 

Lithography.  The  process  of  reproducing  pictures  from  an 
etched  surface  of  stone.  The  process  was  invented  by  Alois 
Sanfelder  early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  See  "The  Reproduc- 
tion of  Illustrations,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  184. 

Locomotive.  The  traction  vehicle  perfected,  but  not  invented, 
by  George  Stephenson.  The  earliest  locomotives  were  those  of 
Cugnot  and  Trevithick.  Locomotives  were  used  in  collieries 
for  a  good  many  years  before  Stephenson  made  his  memorable 
demonstration  with  the  Rocket  in  1829.  See  "The  Steam  Loco- 
motive," Vol.  VII,  p.  119. 

Log.  An  apparatus  for  measuring  the  speed  of  ships.  Orig- 
inally this  consisted  of  a  log  or  block  of  wood  attached  to  a 
knotted  rope.  This  log  was  dropped  into  the  water  astern, 
and  the  speed  of  the  ship  was  estimated  from  the  number  of 
knots  that  ran  through  the  fingers  while  a  half-minute  sand- 
glass was  emptying.  The  modern  log  revolves  in  the  water, 
and  records  speed  on  a  clock-like  dial.  See  "Sailing  by  Dead 
Reckoning,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  14. 

Longitude.  Distance  east  or  west  of  an  arbitrarily  selected 
meridian  (as  that  of  Greenwich,  or  that  of  Washington),  as 
measured  in  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds  of  arc.  The  mariner 
determines  his  longitude  by  means  of  observation  of  sun  or 
stars,  in  connection  with  the  time  record  furnished  by  chrono- 
meter. See  "The  Development  of  the  Sextant,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  18. 

Loom.  An  apparatus  for  weaving  cloth.  The  primitive  hand 
loom  had  been  used  from  remotest  antiquity.  The  power  loom 
was  the  invention  of  the  British  clergyman,  Dr.  Edmund  Cart- 
wright  (1784).  See  "The  Manufacture  of  Textiles,"  Vol.  IX, 
P  43- 

[36] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

Low  Temperature  Researches.  The  work  of  Rumford,  Davy, 
and  Young,  and  later  by  Sir  James  Dewar  and  his  associates  in 
reducing  gases,  even  hydrogen  itself,  to  a  liquid  state,  is  de- 
scribed in  "The  Royal  Institution  and  the  Low  Temperature 
Researches,"  Vol.  V,  p.  29. 

Magdeburg  Hemispheres.  The  name  given  two  hollow  brass 
hemispheres  with  tightly-fitting  surfaces  which,  when  approx- 
imated, and  after  the  air  had  been  exhausted,  could  not  be  pulled 
apart  by  teams  of  horses.  With  these  Otto  von  Guericke,  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  demonstrated  atmospheric  pressure.  See 
Vol.  II,  p.  2ii ;  Vol.  VI,  p.  66. 

Magnet.  A  body  which  possesses  the  property  of  attracting 
fragments  of  iron  or  steel.  The  loadstone  is  a  natural  magnet. 
It  is  the  native  magnetic  oxide  of  iron,  FesO«.  See  "Electricity," 
and  "Electro-magnetism"  of  the  present  index. 

Magnetism.  The  property  possessed  by  certain  bodies  whereby 
they  naturally  attract  or  repel  one  another.  See  "Faraday  ana 
Electro-magnetic  Induction,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  240.  Also  "Electricity," 
and  "Electro-magnetism"  of  the  present  index. 

Magnetized  Needle.  A  magnet  in  the  form  of  a  needle  sus- 
pended at  its  center  of  gravity,  which  places  itself  naturally  in 
a  position  with  its  long  axis  nearly  north  and  south,  with  one 
end  inclining  downward.  See  "Electricity  and  Magnetism,"  Vol. 
Ill,  p.  236.  Also  "The  Mariner's  Compass,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  7. 

Mammalia  (mammiferous  animals,  mammals).  All  those  ani- 
mals which  suckle  their  young,  and  no  others.  Thus,  whales, 
although  fish-like  in  habits,  are  mammals  quite  as  much  as 
horses  or  cattle.  For  studies  of  fossil  mammals,  see  "The  New 
Science  of  Paleontology,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  74;  and  "The  Origin  and 
Development  of  Modern  Geology,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  116. 

Mantle,  Gas.  A  porous,  hollow  cone,  or  bag-shaped  structure, 
composed  of  the  oxides  of  thoria,  alumina,  magnesia,  etc.,  which 
when  placed  so  that  a  mixture  of  air  and  illuminating  gas  passes 
through  it,  and  is  ignited,  becomes  brilliantly  luminous.  See 
"Gas  Lighting,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  207. 

Mariner's  Compass.  An  instrument,  apparently  invented  and 
used  by  the  Chinese  before  the  Christian  era,  in  which  a  mag- 
netized needle  suspended  at  its  center  of  gravity  above  a  disk, 
is  used  for  determining  directions  at  sea.  The  short-needle 
compass,  now  used  universally,  was  invented  by  Lord  Kelvin 
about  1875.  See  "The  Mariner's  Compass,"  Vol.  VII.  p.  7- 

[37] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Marine  Galvanometer.  An  instrument  consisting  of  a  tiny 
magnet  and  a  reflector  with  which  telegraphic  messages  are 
magnified  by  reflected  light.  With  this  instrument,  the  inven- 
tion of  Lord  Kelvin,  very  weak  currents  of  electricity  can  be 
utilized  for  signaling.  See  "Instrumental  Aids,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  45. 

Medicine.  For  the  story  of  the  development  of  the  science  of 
medicine,  from  the  earliest  time  until  the  present,  see  "Scientific 
Knowledge  of  the  Egyptian  Physician,"  Vol.  I,  p.  49;  "Babylon- 
ian Medicine,"  Vol.  I,  p.  75;  "Empedocles,  Physician,  Observer, 
and  Dreamer,"  Vol.  I,  p.  132;  "Hippocrates  and  Greek  Medicine," 
Vol.  I,  p.  170;  "Galen,  the  Last  Great  Alexandrian,"  Vol.  I, 
p  278;  "Arabian  Medicine,"  Vol.  II,  p.  21;  "Byzantine,  and 
Thirteenth  Century  Medicine,"  Vol.  II,  p.  31;  "From  Paracelsus 
to  Harvey,"  Vol.  II,  p.  156;  "Medicine  in  the  Sixteenth  and 
Seventeenth  Centuries,"  Vol.  II,  p.  181;  "Eighteenth  Century 
Medicine,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  182;  "Nineteenth  Century  Medicine,"  Vol. 
IV,  p.  200.  Also  see  chapters  on  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries. 

Mercury-vapor  Light.  An  electric  light,  invented  by  Mr.  Peter 
Cooper  Hewitt,  in  which  mercury  vapor  enclosed  in  a  glass  tube 
is  made  incandescent  by  the  passage  of  an  electric  current. 
This  type  of  lamp  produces  eight  times  as  much  light  as  the 
ordinary  carbon  filament  lamp  with  the  same  amount  of  power. 
See  "The  Mercury-vapor  Light  of  Peter  Cooper  Hewitt,"  Vol. 
VI,  p.  236. 

Meteorites,  or  Shooting  Stars.  Mineral  or  metallic  masses,  of 
extraterrestrial  origin,  which  fall  upon  the  earth,  or  are  con- 
sumed while  passing  through  the  atmosphere  toward  the  earth. 
See  "The  New  Science  of  Meteorology,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  168. 

Meteorology.  The  science  which  treats  of  the  motions  and 
phenomena  of  the  earth's  atmosphere,  the  study  of  climate  and 
weather,  their  causes,  changes,  and  effects.  See  "The  New 
Science  of  Meteorology,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  168. 

Mezzotint.  A  method  of  engraving  on  copper  or  steel,  the 
surface  of  which  has  been  uniformly  roughened  by  an  instru- 
ment called  a  "cradle"  or  "rocker."  For  dark  tones  the  surface 
is  left  undisturbed,  the  lighter  effects  being  produced  by  scraping 
away  the  surface.  See  "Mezzotint,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  196. 

Micrometer.  An  instrument,  used  in  connection  with  the 
microscope,  for  measuring  lengths  and  angles. 

Microscope.  An  optical  instrument  for  magnifying  minute 
objects.  Invented  in  1590  by  the  Dutch  optician  Jensen.  Im- 

[38] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

proved  by  Robert  Hooks,  and  finally  brought  to  its  present  state 
of  perfection  by  the  efforts  of  Sir  David  Brewster,  Dr.  Wollas- 
ton,  Coddington,  and  Joseph  Jackson  Lister.  See  "Lister  and 
the  Perfected  Microscope,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  109. 

Milky  Way.  A  luminous  band  in  the  heavens,  composed  of 
stars  and  nebulae.  This  fact  was  discovered  by  Galileo  with  the 
telescope  which  he  invented.  See  Vol.  II,  p.  79;  and  the  general 
treatment  of  modern  astronomy,  "The  Progress  of  Modern 
Astronomy,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  19. 

Molecule.  The  smallest  mass  of  any  substance  that  can  exist 
in  a  separate  form.  The  atom  is,  of  course,  smaller,  but  single 
atoms  cannot  exist  alone.  See  "The  Ether  and  Ponderable 
Matter,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  283. 

Monorail  Systems.  Railways  having  a  single  rail,  on  which 
cars  with  double-flanged  wheels  are  kept  in  a  state  of  equilibrium 
either  by  overhead  supports,  or  by  means  of  a  gyroscope.  The 
Gyrocar  (q.v.)  of  Louis  Brennan  is  an  example  of  this  latter 
type.  See  "The  Gyrocar,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  195;  and  "Monorail  Sys- 
tems," Vol.  VII,  p.  191. 

Moon's  Variation,  which  was  discovered  by  an  Arabian  astron- 
omer about  975,  is  the  inequality  of  motion  of  the  moon,  in 
virtue  of  which  it  moves  quickest  when  new  or  full,  and  slowest 
at  first  and  third  quarter.  Later  (about  1750)  this  fact  was  re- 
discovered by  Tycho  Brahe.  For  modern  studies  of  the  moon, 
see  "Studies  of  the  Moon,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  48. 

"Mule."  A  spinning  machine  invented  by  Samuel  Crompton 
about  1779.  As  it  was  a  combination  of  the  spinning-jenny  and 
Arkwright's  drawing-rollers — a  hybrid  machine — it  was  dubbed 
"mule,"  after  that  hybrid  animal.  See  "The  Invention  of  the 
'Mule,' "  Vol.  IX,  p.  32. 

Multiple  Messages.  In  telegraphy  it  is  possible  to  send 
several  messages  at  the  same  time  in  opposite  directions  over 
a  single  wire.  The  first  machine  for  doing  this  was  invented 
by  an  Austrian,  Dr.  Gintl,  in  1853.  See  "Multiple  Messages," 
Vol.  VIII,  p.  25. 

Muscles.  A  kind  of  animal  tissue  capable  of  contracting  in 
length  and  dilating  in  breadth.  The  voluntary  muscles,  as  the 
biceps  of  the  arm,  are  under  control  of  the  will,  while  the  in- 
voluntary muscles,  such  as  those  of  the  heart,  intestines,  etc., 
are  not.  All  muscles  respond  to  electrical  stimuli.  See  "The 
Animal  Machine,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  43. 

[39] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Muscular  System.  The  term  applied  to  all  muscles  of  the  body 
as  distinguished  from  the  nervous  system,  osseous  system,  etc. 

Nautical  Almanac.  An  almanac  published  by  the  United 
States  and  other  maritime  powers,  for  the  use  of  astronomers 
and  navigators,  in  which  is  given  the  angular  distances  of  the 
moon  from  the  sun,  planets,  and  fixed  stars,  etc.,  and  other  in- 
formation that  enables  the  navigator  to  determine  exact  posi- 
tions of  latitude  and  longitude.  See  "The  Conquest  of  the 
Zones,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  37. 

Neolithic  Civilization.  A  term  applied  especially  to  the  civiliza- 
tion of  northwestern  Europe  during  the  epoch  of  highly  finished 
and  polished  stone  implements.  It  was  the  later  period  of  the 
"stone  age,"  the  earlier  period  being  the  Paleolithic  age. 

Neon.  A  gaseous  element  discovered  in  the  earth's  atmos- 
phere by  Ramsay  and  Travers  in  1808.  See  "Some  Physical 
Laboratories  and  Physical  Problems,"  Vol.  V,  p.  84. 

Neptune,  (i)  In  Roman  mythology  the  god  of  the  sea; 
(2)  in  astronomy  the  most  distant  of  the  known  planets.  It  is 
peculiar  in  revolving  from  east  to  west,  and  revolves  around 
the  sun  in  164.6  years.  See  "The  Discovery  of  Neptune,"  Vol. 

III,  p.  42- 

Neptunists.  The  name  given  to  the  followers  of  Werner  of 
Saxony,  who  believed  that  "in  the  beginning  all  the  solids  of  the 
earth's  crust  were  dissolved  in  the  heated  waters  of  a  universal 
sea."  The  opponents  of  this  theory,  who  followed  James  Hut- 
ton's  teachings,  were  called  "Plutonists."  See  "Neptunists 
versus  Plutonists,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  131. 

Nerve  Cells.  Structures  in  the  brain  from  which  the  nerve- 
filaments  originate.  They  may  be  likened  to  "a  central  tele- 
phone office  of  a  telephone  system."  See  "The  New  Science 
of  Experimental  Psychology,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  249. 

Nerves.  Filaments  leading  from  the  nerve  cells  of  the  brain 
to  various  structures  of  the  body,  such  as  muscles,  glands,  etc., 
which  serve  as  conductors  of  impulses,  to  and  from  the  brain. 
Sir  Charles  Bell,  in  1811,  discovered  that  there  are  two  distinct 
sets  of  nerves,  one  for  carrying  motor  and  the  other  for  carry- 
ing sensory  impulses.  See  "Experimental  Psychology,"  Vol. 

IV,  p.  249- 

Nitrate  Beds.  Large  areas  in  northern  Chili,  Peru,  and  Bo- 
livia, containing  sodium  nitrate  (Na  N  O,)  in  a  native  state. 
This  substance  is  valuable  as  a  fertilizer,  and  as  a  source  of 

[40] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

nitric  tcid  and  of  nitre.  See  "Nitrogen  from  the  Air,"  Vol.  VI. 
p.  303- 

Nitrogen.  A  gaseous,  non-metallic  element,  constituting  77 
per  cent  by  weight,  or  four-fifths  by  bulk,  of  the  earth's  atmos- 
phere. Discovered  by  Henry  Cavendish  about  1809.  See  "Henry 
Cavendish,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  13;  and  "Nitrogen  from  the  Air,"  Vol. 
VI,  p.  303. 

Nuclei  of  Plant  Cells.  The  component  part  of  the  vegetable 
cell,  first  recognized  by  Robert  Brown  in  1833.  See  "Robert 
Brown  and  the  Cell  Nucleus,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  115. 

Oil  Engines.    See  "Gas  and  Oil  Engines,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  132. 

Organic  Evolution.  The  chalTges  in  living  organisms,  the  out- 
growth of  which  is  their  present  forms.  See  "Theories  of 
Organic  Evolution,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  140. 

Organic  Matter.  The  term  applied  to  animal  and  vegetable 
matter  as  distinguishing  it  from  mineral,  or  inorganic,  matter. 

Organicists'  System.  A  system  of  medicine  in  vogue  during 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  followers  of  which  did  not  believe 
that  life  was  due  to  some  spiritual  entity,  but  rather  to  the 
structure  of  the  body  itself.  See  "Animists,  Vitalists,  and 
Organicists,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  184. 

Oxygen.  A  non-metallic  gaseous  element,  discovered  in  1774 
by  Joseph  Priestley,  and  called  by  him  "dephlogisticated  air." 
Later  Lavoisier  gave  it  the  name  oxygen  (chemical  symbol  O). 
See  "Joseph  Priestley,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  18. 

Paint.  Colors  or  dyes  mixed  with  some  vehicle,  such  as  oil, 
turpentine,  water,  etc.,  so  as  to  spread  over  a  surface  and  retain 
their  brilliancy  after  drying.  See  "Paints,  Dyes,  and  Varnishes," 
Vol.  VIII,  p.  258. 

Paleontology.  The  science  of  ancient  life  that  inhabited  the 
earth  during  the  ages  previous  to  historic  times.  The  science 
originated  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  and  was  named  by 
de  Blainville  and  Fischer  von  Waldheim  in  1834-  See  "The 
New  Science  of  Paleontology,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  74- 

Palladium.  A  metal  resembling  platinum,  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  certain  scientific  instruments.  It  was  discovered  by 
Wollaston  in  1803.  See  "Element"  of  the  present  index. 

Paper.  A  material  composed  of  vegetable  fibers  formed 
artificially  into  thin  sheets.  It  came  into  use  about  the  twelfth 
century  in  Europe,  but  was  probably  known  and  used  long 

[41] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

before  that  in  the  Orient.  See  "The  Manufacture  of  Paper," 
VoL  VIII,  p.  159. 

Parasitic  Diseases.  Diseases  caused  by  animal  or  vegetable 
parasites,  such  as  the  itch,  caused  by  the  burrowing  under  the 
skin  of  the  itch  mite,  or  the  disease  trichinosis,  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  trichinae  burrowing  in  the  tissues.  See  "Parasitic  Dis- 
eases," VoL  IV,  p.  204. 

Pepsin.  A  ferment  secreted  by  the  mucous  lining  of  the 
stomach,  discovered  by  Schwann  and  Wasmann,  1836-1840. 
When  combined  with  an  acid  solution  it  has  the  power  of  trans- 
forming coagulated  albuminous  substances  into  soluble  pep- 
tones. See  "Animal  Chemistry,"'  Vol.  IV,  p.  128. 

Percussion.  In  medicine,  the  method  of  investigation  which 
consists  in  striking  the  surface  of  the  body  to  ascertain  from 
the  sounds  produced  the  condition  of  the  parts  beneath.  In- 
troduced in  modern  times  by  Avenbrugger,  and  afterward 
adopted  by  Laennec  and  Corvissart.  See  "Nineteenth  Century 
Medicine,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  199. 

Periodic  Law.  A  term  expressive  of  the  observed  fact  that 
the  chemical  elements  when  listed  serially  in  the  numerical  order 
of  their  atomic  weights  show  a  curious  recurrence  of  similar 
properties  at  intervals  of  eight  elements.  See  "Periodicity  of 
Atomic  Weights,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  64. 

Periscope.  An  optical  instrument  used  for  making  observa- 
sions  from  a  submarine  boat  when  submerged.  See  "Submarine 
Vessels,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  93;  in  particular  p.  in. 

Phantoscope.  A  form  of  moving-picture  machine.  See 
"Chrono-photography — Moving  Pictures,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  248. 

Phlogiston.  A  hypothetical  substance,  at  one  time  supposed 
to  be  part  of  all  bodies  capable  of  being  burned.  The  Phlogiston 
theory  was  developed  by  George  Ernst  Stahl  (1660-1734),  fol- 
lowing the  experiments  of  Becker  (1635-1682).  See  "The 
Phlogiston  Theory  in  Chemistry,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  3. 

Phonautograph.  An  instrument  invented  by  Leo  Scott  in 
1856,  with  which  vibrations  made  by  sounds  were  recorded  on 
smoked  glass  by  means  of  a  needle  attached  to  a  diaphragm. 
See  "The  Edison  Phonograph,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  93. 

Phonograph.  A  device  for  recording  and  reproducing  sounds, 
invented  by  Thomas  A.  Edison  in  1877.  See  "The  Edison 
Phonograph."  Vol.  VIII,  p.  93. 

Photography.  The  art  of  producing  pictures  by  the  action  of 
light  on  chemically  prepared  surfaces.  The  first  camera  image 

[42] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

was  produced  by  Niepcc  in  1827;  but  the  honor  of  bringing 
photography  to  a  practical  stage  of  development  belongs  to 
Daguerre,  dating  from  January,  1839.  See  "Photography  in  its 
Scientific  Aspects,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  220. 

Photogravure.  A  process  of  engraving,  done  partly  by  pho- 
tography, and  by  mechanical  and  chemical  action  on  copper 
plates,  from  which  prints  can  be  made  in  a  copper-plate  press. 
See  "The  Reproduction  of  Illustrations,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  184;  in 
particular  p.  217. 

Phrenology.  A  doctrine,  advanced  by  Dr.  Franz  Joseph  Gall, 
which  maintains  that  the  external  configurations  of  the  skull 
are  indicative  of  certain  mental  characteristics.  See  "The  New 
Science  of  Experimental  Psychology,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  247. 

Physical  Diagnosis.  A  method  of  external  examination,  in- 
troduced by  Corvissart,  the  physician  to  Napoleon,  whereby 
diseased  conditions  are  detected  by  certain  mechanical  methods 
of  examination,  such  as  "chest-tapping/*  etc.  See  "Nineteenth 
Century  Medicine,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  199. 

Physics.  The  science  that  deals  with  matter  and  its  properties 
and  with  the  transformations  of  energy.  From  this  it  will  be 
seen  that  its  scope  is  very  wide  and  far-reaching.  See  "Galileo 
and  the  New  Physics,"  Vol.  II,  p.  93;  "Modern  Theories  of 
Heat  and  Light,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  206;  "The  Conservation  of 
Energy,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  253;  "The  Ether  and  Ponderable  Matter," 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  283;  "The  Royal  Institution  and  Low-temperature 
Researches,"  Vol.  V,  p.  29;  "Some  Physical  Laboratories  and 
Physical  Problems,"  Vol.  V,  p.  73;  "Some  Unsolved  Scientific 
Problems,"  Vol.  V,  p.  203.  Electricity  (q.v.)  is  a  department  of 
Physics,  and  nearly  all  the  appliances  of  the  mechanical  world 
fall  within  the  scope  of  Applied  Physics.  See,  for  example,  the 
chapter  "How  Work  is  Done,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  29. 

Physiology.  In  a  restricted  sense  it  is  applied  to  that  de- 
partment of  inquiry  which  investigates  the  functions  of  living 
organisms,  such  as  the  functions  of  the  brain,  liver,  etc.  In  a 
broader  sense  it  covers  the  sum  of  all  knowledge  concerning 
living  organisms.  See  "Anatomy  and  Physiology  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  73;  and  "Anatomy  and 
Physiology  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  102. 

Pigments.  The  name  given  to  paints,  or  any  preparations  used 
by  painters  and  dyers.  Also,  the  coloring  matter  found  in  the 
tissues  of  most  animals  and  plants.  See  "Paints,  Dyes,  and 
Varnishes,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  258. 

[43] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

Piston  Engine.  A  form  of  engine  invented  by  Denis  Papin 
about  1688.  The  name  is  still  used  to  distinguish  certain  types 
of  engines  (such  as  the  locomotive)  from  rotary  engines,  turbine 
engines,  etc.  See  "Captive  Molecules:  The  Story  of  the  Steam 
Engine,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  79. 

Pitch-blende.  A  heavy,  black,  pitchy-looking  mineral,  found 
principally  in  Saxony,  Bohemia,  Cornwall,  and  Colorado.  It 
was  while  experimenting  with  this  substance  that  M.  Henri 
Becquerel  discovered  the  so-called  "Becquerel  rays"  in  1896. 
See  "Radio-activity,"  Vol.  V,  p.  97. 

Plagues.  The  name  given  to  epidemics  of  various  diseases 
which  caused  great  loss  of  life  during  the  middle  ages  and  until 
quite  recent  times. 

Polonium.  An  element  discovered  by  Mme.  Skoldowska  Curie 
in  1898.  Mme.  Curie  discovered  it  while  examining  the  mineral 
pitch-blende  (q.v.)  and  named  it  in  honor  of  her  native  country, 
Poland.  For  chemical  symbol  and  atomic  weight,  see  "Element," 
in  the  present  index. 

Ponderable  Matter.  See  "The  Ether  and  Ponderable  Mat- 
ter," Vol.  Ill,  p.  283. 

Power.  In  mechanics  and  physics,  the  application  of  energy 
through  which  work  is  performed;  also,  the  rate  at  which  work 
is  performed — that  is,  the  amount  of  work  performed  per  unit 
of  time.  See  "How  Work  is  Done,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  29.  The  subject 
of  power  as  generated  by  muscles,  wind,  water,  steam,  and 
electricity  will  be  found  in  the  chapters  dealing  especially  with 
these  subjects.  See  general  index. 

Predynastic  Period.  The  period  in  Egyptian  history  antedat- 
ing the  historic  period. 

Printing.  For  the  full  account  of  the  development  of  printing, 
see  "The  Printing  and  Making  of  Modern  Books,"  Vol.  VIII, 
p.  119.  In  the  same  volume  are  the  chapters  dealing  with  the 
closely  allied  subjects,  "The  Manufacture  of  Paper,"  p.  159;  and 
"The  Reproduction  of  Illustrations,"  p.  184. 

Protoplasm.  An  albuminous  elementary  organic  compound 
which  enters  into  the  composition  of  organized  tissues  of  all 
kinds.  See  "The  Cell  Theory  Elaborated,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  122. 

Psychology.  That  branch  of  knowledge  which  deals  with 
the  mind.  See  "The  New  Science  of  Experimental  Psychology," 
Vol.  IV,  p.  245. 

Pulley.  A  wheel  turning  on  a  pin,  having  a  groove  on  its  cir- 
cumference in  which  runs  a  rope  for  turning  it.  It  is  a  form 

[44] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

of  lever  that  was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  but  Archimedes 
brought  it  to  its  highest  state  of  perfection.  See  "Wheels  and 
Pulleys,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  32. 

Pump.  A  machine  for  raising  liquids  or  extracting  gases. 
The  common  form  is  the  piston  pump,  but  there  are  also  centri- 
fugal, rotary,  electric  pumps.  For  the  invention  of  the  air- 
pump,  see  "Mariotte  and  Von  Guericke,"  Vol.  II,  p.  210.  For  the 
development  of  steam  pumps,  see  "The  Story  of  the  Steam 
Engine,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  79.  For  pumps  run  by  hot-air  engines,  see 
"Gas  and  Oil  Engines,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  132.  For  electric  pumps, 
see  "Electric  Mining  Pumps,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  263. 

Quadrant.    An  old  form  of  sextant  (q.v.). 

Quinine.  An  alkaline  substance  obtained  from  the  bark  of 
trees  of  the  cinchona  genus.  The  bark  of  these  trees  was  in- 
troduced as  a  medicine  in  1640. 

Rabies.  A  germ-produced  disease  affecting  certain  animals, 
especially  dogs,  from  which  hydrophobia  is  communicated. 
Pasteur  discovered  a  preventive  inoculation  for  this  disease. 
See  "Aims  and  Objects  of  the  Pasteur  Institute,"  Vol.  V,  p.  182. 

Radio-activity.  The  property  possessed  by  certain  substances 
of  spontaneously  and  continuously  emitting  penetrating  rays 
capable  of  passing  through  bodies  opaque  to  ordinary  light. 
It  was  discovered  by  M.  Henri  Becquerel  in  1806.  See  "Radio- 
activity," Vol.  V,  p.  97. 

Radiolarians.  Creatures  of  microscopic  size  found  in  the  mud 
of  the  ocean  bottom,  etc.  Prof.  Ernst  Haeckel  discovered,  named, 
and  described  more  than  4,000  new  species,  obtained  from  a 
few  ounces  of  mud.  See  "Ernst  Haeckel  and  the  New  Zoology," 
Vol.  V,  p.  153- 

Radium.  A  new  element  discovered  by  Professor  and  Mme. 
Curie  in  1898,  which  possesses  remarkable  powers  of  radiation. 
See  "Radio-activity,"  Vol.  V,  p.  97. 

Refrigerator  Machines.  Mechanisms  for  producing  very  low 
temperatures,  used  for  liquefying  gases,  such  as  hydrogen,  air, 
etc.  See  "The  Royal  Institution  and  Low  Temperature  Re- 
searches," Vol.  V,  p.  38. 

Respiration.  The  process  of  taking  in  oxygen  and  giving  off 
carbon  dioxide  by  the  respiratory  organs  of  animals.  In  man 
and  the  higher  animals  this  function  is  performed  by  the  lungs. 

[45] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 

This  fact  was  not  established  until  late  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. See  "The  Function  of  Respiration,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  92. 

Rhodium.  A  metal  belonging  to  the  platinum  group,  dis- 
covered by  Wollaston  in  1804.  See  "Element"  in  the  present 
index  for  chemical  symbol  and  atomic  weight. 

Rosetta  Stone.  A  slab  of  black  rock  found  in  Egypt,  the  in- 
scriptions on  which  furnished  the  key  for  the  decipherment  of 
the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics.  It  was  discovered  in  Egypt  in  1799, 
and  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  See  "The  New  Science  of 
Oriental  Archaeology,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  287. 

Rotary  Engine.  A  type  of  engine  in  which  rotary  motion  is 
obtained  direct,  without  change  of  direction  as  in  the  case  of 
reciprocating  engines.  The  turbine  engine  is  an  example  of  a 
rotary  steam  engine.  See  "Rotary  Engines,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  119. 

Ruby.  A  precious  stone,  rich  red  in  color,  a  transparent 
variety  of  corundum.  It  can  be  produced  artificially  of  con- 
siderable size.  See  "Gems,  Natural  and  Artificial,"  Vol.  IX, 
p.  319. 

Saliva.  A  liquid  secreted  by  the  salivary  glands  of  the  mouth, 
containing  a  digestive  ferment.  See  "Animal  Chemistry,"  Vol. 
IV,  p.  128. 

Sarcode.  The  name  given  by  Dujardin  to  the  viscid,  slimy 
fluid,  capable  of  motion,  found  within  the  cell  wall.  See  "The 
Cell  Theory  Elaborated,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  122. 

Scandium.  One  of  three  then  unknown  elements,  the  existence 
of  which  were  predicted  by  Mendeleeff  on  formulating  his 
periodic  law.  See  "Periodicity  of  Atomic  Weights,"  Vol.  IV, 
p.  64. 

Serum-therapy.  A  method  of  treating  certain  diseases  by 
means  of  the  modified  blood  serum  of  man  or  the  lower  ani- 
mals. Behring's  diphtheria  antitoxine  serum,  discovered  in  1892, 
is  an  example.  See  "Preventive  Inoculation,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  231, 
and  "Serum-therapy,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  240;  also,  "Aims  and  Objects 
of  the  Pasteur  Institute,"  Vol.  V,  p.  182. 

Sextant.  A  portable  instrument  for  measuring  the  altitudes 
of  heavenly  bodies  above  the  horizon,  or  their  angular  distance 
as  seen  in  the  sky;  hence  its  use  with  the  chronometer  in  de- 
termining exact  latitude  and  longitude.  See  "The  Development 
of  the  Sextant,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  18. 

Shooting-stars.    See  Meteorites. 

Signatures,  Doctrine  of.    A  mediaeval  theory,  which  in  effect 

[46] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

was  that  every  organ  or  part  of  the  body  had  a  corresponding 
form  in  nature,  whose  function  was  to  heal  diseases  of  the 
organ  it  resembled.  See  "Paracelsus,"  Vol.  II,  p.  156. 

Siphon  Recorder.  An  instrument  for  reading  cable  messages 
invented  by  Lord  Kelvin  in  1867,  in  the  form  of  a  tube  of  ink 
so  arranged  that  as  the  message  comes  over  the  wire  fine  drops 
of  ink  are  projected  upon  a  piece  of  paper  in  lines  whose  deflec- 
tions can  be  made  to  represent  the  Morse  code.  See  "The  Sub- 
marine Cable,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  45. 

Sliding  Rule.  An  instrument,  used  in  measuring  surfaces  and 
solids,  etc.,  which  consists  of  two  graduated  and  numbered 
pieces  of  wood  or  other  material,  one  of  which  slides  in  the 
groove  of  the  other. 

Solar  and  Telluric  Problems.  Problems  pertaining  to  the 
solar  system  and  to  the  earth.  See  "Some  Unsolved  Scientific 
Problems,"  Vol.  V,  p.  203. 

Sothic  Cycle.  A  period  of  the  Egyptian  calendar  measured 
by  the  heliacal  rising  of  Sothis.  See  "Astronomical  Science" 
(Egyptian),  Vol.  I,  p.  33. 

Spark  Recorder.  An  instrument  used  in  receiving  submarine 
cable  messages,  in  which  a  spark  is  projected  against  some 
sensitized  surface  in  an  undulating  line,  which  can  be  read  by  the 
operator.  See  "The  Submarine  Cable,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  45. 

Spectroscope.  An  instrument  employed  in  spectrum  analysis, 
perfected  by  Kirchhoff  and  Bunsen  in  1859.  This  instrument 
"discloses  the  chemical  nature  and  physical  condition  of  any 
substance  whose  light  is  submitted  to  it."  See  "Revelations  of 
the  Spectroscope,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  62;  also,  for  star-spectra,  Vol. 
V,  p.  77- 

Spinning.  The  process  of  making  thread  of  uniform  size  from 
the  fibers  of  cotton,  flax,  wool,  silk,  etc.,  for  weaving  purposes. 
See  "An  Industrial  Revolution,"  Vol.  IX,  p.  5. 

Spinning-frame.    See  Water-frame. 

Spinning-jenny.  A  machine  for  spinning  invented  by  James 
Hargreaves  in  1767.  See  "Hargreaves  and  the  Spinning-jenny," 
Vol.  IX,  p.  21. 

Spinthariscope.  An  instrument  devised  by  Sir  William 
Crookes  for  examining  certain  radio-active  substances.  See 
"The  Nature  of  Emanations  from  Radio-active  Bodies,"  Vol.  V, 
p.  102. 

Spontaneous  Generation,  Theory  of.  The  obsolete  doctrine  that 
living  matter  may  originate  spontaneously  out  of  non-living 

[47] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

matter.  See  Vol.  IV,  p.  180;  also,  "Pasteur  and  the  Germ 
Theory  of  Disease,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  217;  also,  "Life  Problems,"  Vol. 
V,  p.  220. 

Static  Machine.  A  machine  for  generating  static,  or  frictional, 
electricity.  It  consists  of  a  large  circle  of  glass  so  arranged  that 
its  surface  can  be  revolved  rapidly  against  a  suitable  friction 
producer.  Until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  static 
machines  were  the  only  kind  of  apparatus  known  for  generating 
electricity.  See  "Progress  in  Electricity  from  Gilbert  and  Von 
Guericke  to  Franklin,"  Vol.  II,  p.  259. 

Statics.  The  science  that  deals  with  stationary  bodies  in 
equilibrium  or  under  conditions  of  stress  or  strain. 

Steam.  Water  in  a  gaseous  state.  Water  becomes  gaseous  at 
sea-level  at  a  temperature  of  2I2°F.,  or  ioo°C. 

Steamboat.  See  "Steam  Engine"  of  the  present  index,  and  in 
particular  "The  Highway  of  the  Waters,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  56. 

Steam  Engine.  For  the  story  of  the  development  of  the 
steam  engine,  see  "Ctesibus  and  Hero:  Magicians  of  Alexandria," 
Vol.  I,  p.  242;  "Captive  Molecules:  The  Story  of  the  Steam 
Engine,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  79;  "The  Master  Worker,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  no. 
For  the  application  of  steam  in  various  fields,  see  "The  High- 
way of  the  Waters,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  56;  "The  Steam  Locomotive," 
Vol.  VII,  p.  119;  "From  Cart  to  Automobile,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  152. 

Steam  Locomotive.    See  "Locomotive"  of  the  present  index. 

Steel.  Is  an  alloy  of  iron  and  carbon;  or  a  modified  form  of 
iron  containing  more  carbon  than  wrought-iron  and  not  as  much 
as  cast-iron,  as  a  rule,  although  some  mild  steels  contain  as  little 
carbon  as  wrought-iron.  See  "The  Age  of  Steel,"  Vol.  VI, 
P-  27i. 

Steelyard.  An  old-fashioned  and  primitive  form  of  balance 
for  weighing  objects.  The  principle  upon  which  the  steelyard 
works  is  that  of  a  lever  of  the  first  class. 

Stethoscope.  An  instrument  for  listening  to  the  sounds  of 
the  internal  organs,  particularly  the  lungs  and  heart.  It  con- 
sists essentially  of  a  hollow  tube,  funnel-haped,  which  collects 
and  concentrates  the  sound  waves,  just  reversing  the  action  of 
the  megaphone.  It  was  invented  by  Laennec,  a  French  physician, 
in  1815.  See  Vol.  IV,  p.  201. 

Storage  Battery.  An  electric  battery  for  collecting  and  storing 
electricity.  For  the  recent  improvement  in  storage  batteries, 
including  the  invention  of  Thomas  A.  Edison,  see  "Storage 
Battery  Systems,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  188. 

[48] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Storm  Center.  An  area  of  low  barometric  pressure — an  area 
where  the  air  has  become  lighter  than  the  air  of  surrounding 
regions.  See  "The  New  Science  of  Meteorology,"  Vol.  Ill, 
p.  202. 

Submarine  Cable.  The  name  given  to  submerged  telegraph 
wires  which  are  insulated  and  made  waterproof.  The  first  suc- 
cessful telegraphic  cable  seems  to  have  been  laid  across  the 
Hugli  River,  India,  in  1838.  See  "The  Submarine  Cable,"  Vol. 
VIII,  p.  30. 

Submarine  Signaling.  A  recent  innovation  in  the  field  of  nav- 
igation, by  which  the  position  of  ships  and  other  objects  may 
be  determined  approximately  by  the  use  of  a  telephone  receiver 
and  the  ringing  of  a  submerged  bell.  See  "Submarine  Signaling," 
Vol.  VII,  p.  83. 

Submarine  Vessels.  Vessels  which  run  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  water,  now  very  generally  referred  to  as  "submersibles." 
See  "Submarine  Vessels,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  93. 

Suction.  The  phenomenon  produced  in  any  enclosed  space  in 
which  the  air  is  partially  or  completely  exhausted.  The  word, 
as  commonly  applied,  has  no  proper  application,  as  the  apparent 
"suction"  from  within  is  really  a  manifestation  of  the  air-pressure 
from  without.  See  "Suction  and  Pressure,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  64. 

Sulphuric  Ether.  A  light,  inflammable  fluid  obtained  from 
alcohol,  which,  when  mixed  with  air  and  inhaled,  produces  in- 
sensibility. See  "Painless  Surgery,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  208. 

Sun-spots.  Changes  on  the  surface  of  the  sun,  which  were 
first  recognized  as  such  by  Galileo,  and  enabled  him  to  demon- 
strate that  the  sun  itself  revolves  on  its  axis.  For  the  dis- 
coveries of  Galileo,  see  Vol.  II,  p.  77. 

Telautograph.  An  instrument  for  the  instantaneous  transmis- 
sion of  a  facsimile  copy  of  writing  or  pen  drawing.  The  ap- 
paratus was  invented  by  Elisha  Gray,  who  also  named  it. 

Telegraph.  At  the  present  time  the  name  is  applied  to  the 
instrument  for  sending  messages  by  means  of  electric  signals. 
For  the  description  of  the  development  of  modern  telegraph 
systems,  see  "The  Development  of  the  Telegraph,"  Vol.  VIII, 

P-  3- 

Telephone.  For  the  story  of  the  development  of  the  tele- 
phone, and  telephone  systems,  see  "The  Development  of  the 
Telephone,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  66. 

Telescope.     An  optical  instrument  by  the  use  of  which  dis- 

[49] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 

tant  objects  appear  near,  the  invention  of  the  Dutch  optician 
Lippershey  in  the  seventeenth  century.  In  1609  Galileo  invented 
another  type  of  telescope  for  astronomical  observations.  See 
Vol.  II,  p.  77.  For  later  improvements  in  telescopes,  see  "In- 
struments of  Precision  in  the  Age  of  Newton,"  Vol.  II,  p.  252. 

Telluric  Structure.  Pertaining  to  the  structure  of  the  earth. 
See  "Solar  and  Telluric  Problems,"  Vol.  V,  p.  205. 

Telpherage  Systems.  The  invention  of  Fleeming  Jenkin,  which 
consists  of  overhead  cables  hung  on  poles  along  which  carriers 
of  small  capacity  are  hauled  by  electric  motors.  See  "Traction 
in  Mining,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  256. 

Tetanus.  The  disease  commonly  known  as  lockjaw,  is 
characterized  by  spasm  of  the  voluntary  muscles.  It  is  caused 
by  the  tetanus  bacillus,  which  was  discovered  by  Nicolaier  in 
1884.  Behring  discovered  an  antitoxic  serum  which  averts  the 
attack  of  the  disease  when  administered  in  time.  See  "Serum- 
therapy,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  240. 

Textiles.  Materials  made  by  weaving  together  of  threads  to 
form  a  nearly  solid  surface,  such  as  cloth,  rugs,  etc.  The  term 
does  not  apply  to  substances  woven  of  wood,  such  as  baskets. 
See  "The  Manufacture  of  Textiles,"  Vol.  IX,  p.  38. 

Thermometer.  A  familiar  instrument  for  determining  the 
temperature.  The  most  common  form  is  that  of  an  exhausted 
closed  glass  tube  in  which  a  column  of  mercury  expands  and 
contracts.  The  two  kinds  in  more  common  use  are  the  Centi- 
grade, the  freezing  point  of  which  is  o,  and  the  boiling  point 
100;  and  the  Farenheit,  the  freezing  point  of  which  is  32°,  the 
boiling  point  212°. 

Thorium.  An  element  discovered  by  the  Swedish  chemist 
Berzelius,  and  named  by  him  after  the  ancient  Scandinavian  god 
Thor.  It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  rare  elements.  The 
oxide  of  thorium  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  gas  mantles.  See 
"The  Incandescent  Gas  Mantle,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  208. 

Toxine.  Substances,  generally  of  bacterial  origin,  which,  when 
brought  into  the  circulation,  produce  diseases  of  a  distinct  nature 
according  to  the  nature  of  toxine.  See  "Serum-therapy,"  Vol. 
IV,  p.  240. 

Transformers.  In  electricity,  are  mechanisms  for  transform- 
ing a  current  of  a  certain  voltage  into  one  of  higher  or  lower 
voltage.  A  "step-up"  transformer  changes  a  current  of  low 
voltage  to  one  of  higher  voltage;  a  "step-down"  transformer  acts 

[50] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

in  just  the  reverse  manner  from  the  "step-up"  transformer.  See 
"Step-up"  and  "Step-down"  Transformers,  Vol.  VI,  p.  198. 

Transmutation  of  Species.  The  change  of  species  in  the 
process  of  evolution.  Jean  Baptiste  de  Lamarck  (see  Vol.  IV, 
p.  150),  early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  called  attention  to  this 
fact,  and  thus  laid  one  of  the  foundation-stones  to  Darwin's 
theory  of  evolution.  For  a  full  treatment  of  the  subject,  see 
"Theories  of  Organic  Evolution,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  140. 

Treadmill.  An  implement  for  producing  power,  in  which  an 
animal  or  man  by  walking  up  a  movable  inclined  plane  trans- 
mits power.  The  animal,  although  continually  walking,  remains 
in  the  same  spot,  the  platform  receding  at  a  rate  corresponding 
to  the  walking  rate  of  the  animal.  See  Vol.  VI,  p.  60. 

Trichina  Spiralis.  A  parasite  found  in  pork  (and  several  of 
the  lower  animals),  which  may  be  transferred  to  the  human 
system  through  the  channel  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  set  up 
a  severe  and  often  fatal  disease  known  as  trichinosis.  The 
parasite  was  discovered  by  James  Paget,  then  a  medical  student, 
in  1833.  See  Vol.  IV,  p.  207. 

Trichinosis.    See  "Trichina  Spiralis." 

Trophic  Centers.  Waller  discovered  that  every  nerve  fiber, 
sensory  or  motor,  has  a  nerve  cell  to  or  from  which  it  leads, 
which  dominates  its  nutrition,  so  that  it  can  only  retain  its 
vitality  while  its  connection  with  that  cell  is  intact.  Such  cells 
he  named  trophic  centers.  See  "Functions  of  the  Nerves,"  Vol. 
IV,  p.  249- 

Tungsten  Lamp.  An  incandescent  electric  lamp  in  which  the 
filament  is  made  of  the  metal  tungsten  (or  some  alloy)  in  place 
of  the  usual  carbon  filament.  See  "The  Tungsten  Lamp,"  Vol. 
VI,  p.  234- 

Turbine  Engine.  A  steam  engine  in  which  the  action  of  steam 
upon  a  shaft  causes  it  to  revolve,  thus  producing  directly  rotary 
motion.  In  the  ordinary  reciprocating  engine  the  power  has  to 
be  transformed  into  rotary  motion  by  the  intervention  of  a 
crank.  See  "Turbine  Engines,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  124. 

Turbine  Water-wheels.  A  horizontal  water-wheel  made  to 
revolve  by  the  escape  of  water  through  orifices,  under  pressure 
derived  from  a  waterfall.  Probably  the  most  powerful  water 
turbines  are  those  at  Niagara  Falls.  See  "Niagara  in  Harness," 
Vol.  VI,  p.  183;  and  "Running  Water,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  70. 

[51] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 

Undulatory  Theory  of  Light.  According  to  this  theory  light 
is  a  kind  of  undulatory  motion  produced  by  the  luminous  body  in 
the  particles  of  an  elastic,  imponderable  medium  called  the 
luminiferous  ether,  which  is  supposed  to  fill  all  space,  and  also 
the  interstices  of  all  bodies.  See  "Thomas  Young  and  the  Wave 
Theory  of  Light,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  215. 

Uranium.  A  metallic  chemical  element  discovered  by  Klap- 
roth  in  1789,  and  first  isolated  by  Peligot  in  1842.  Its  atomic 
weight  is  238.5,  specific  gravity  18.6,  symbol  U. 

Valence  (valency).  The  combination  value  or  capacity  of  a 
chemical  atom,  in  virtue  of  which  it  can  unite  with  one  only  or 
with  more  than  one  atom  equivalent  to  the  hydrogen  atom. 
See  "Chemical  Affinity,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  57. 

Valves  of  the  Veins.  Structures  in  the  lumen  of  veins  which 
prevent  the  flow  of  blood  backward  away  from  the  heart.  They 
were  discovered  and  described  by  the  French  anatomist,  Charles 
Etienne  (1503-1564).  See  Vol.  II,  p.  166. 

Varnish.  A  solution  of  certain  resins,  such  as  mastic,  lac, 
copel,  asphalt,  amber,  benzoin,  etc.,  capable  of  hardening  with- 
out losing  its  transparency.  Ordinary  commercial  varnish  is  a 
solution  of  resin  in  oil  of  turpentine.  See  "Varnishes,"  Vol. 
VIII,  p.  316. 

Vitagraph.  A  moving-picture  machine  similar  to  the  kinet- 
oscope,  patented  by  Thos.  A.  Edison  in  1891.  See  "Chrono- 
photography — Moving  Pictures,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  248. 

Vitalists.  Followers  of  a  system  of  medicine  championed  by 
Paul  Joseph  Barthez  in  the  eighteenth  century.  They  assumed 
that  there  was  a  "vital  principle,"  of  unknown  nature,  but  differ- 
ing from  the  thinking  mind,  or  the  soul,  which  was  the  cause  of 
all  the  phenomena  of  life.  See  "Animists,  Vitalists,  and  Or- 
ganicists,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  184. 

Vitascope.    See  "Vitagraph"  of  the  present  index. 

Volt.  The  unit  of  electro-motive  force.  See  "Electricity"  of 
the  present  index. 

Vortex  Atom.    See  "Vortex  Theory." 

Vortex  Theory.  A  conception  that  the  atoms  and  molecules 
of  physical  science  may  be  vortex  rings  or  filaments,  or  com- 
binations of  these,  in  the  universal  ether.  See  "Physical  Prob- 
lems," Vol.  V,  p.  213. 

[52] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Walking  Beam.  A  beam,  or  bar,  used  on  a  certain  type  of 
steam  engine  to  convert  the  reciprocal  motion  of  the  piston  into 
rotary  motion.  At  the  present  time  the  walking  beam  is  little 
used  except  on  side-wheel  river  steamers.  See  "Final  Improve- 
ments and  Missed  Opportunities,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  102. 

Water.  A  universally  diffused  liquid,  with  the  formula  HZO 
(two  atoms  of  hydrogen  and  one  of  oxygen).  The  chemical  com- 
position of  water  was  discovered  in  1781  by  Henry  Cavendish. 
James  Watt  is  also  credited  with  priority  of  this  discovery,  but 
Cavendish's  claim  is  fully  established.  See  Vol.  IV,  p.  14. 

Water  Engines.  See  "The  Work  of  Air  and  Water,"  Vol. 
VI,  p.  70. 

Water-frame.  The  name  given  Arkwright's  spinning-frame. 
See  Vol.  IX,  p.  25. 

Watermills.  Mills  driven  by  water-power  appear  to  have 
been  introduced  in  the  time  of  Mithridates,  Julius  Caesar,  and 
Cicero.  When  the  Goths  besieged  Rome  in  536  and  cut  off  the 
water  supply  for  running  the  mills  the  Romans  constructed 
floating  mills  on  the  Tiber.  Mills  driven  by  the  tide  existed  in 
Venice  as  early  as  1078.  See  "The  Work  of  Air  and  Water," 
Vol.  VI,  p.  70. 

Water-motor.  Any  water-wheel  or  turbine  run  by  water.  In 
1838  Lord  Armstrong  had  a  water-motor  constructed  along  lines 
similar  to  the  modern  steam  turbine  engine.  Its  efficiency  was 
ninety-five  per  cent,  and  it  developed  five  horse-power  at  thirty 
revolutions  per  minute.  See  Vol.  VI,  p.  70. 

Water-wheels.    See  "Watermills"  of  the  present  index. 

Weaving.  The  art  of  producing  textile  fabrics,  such  as  cloth, 
network,  lace,  etc.,  from  a  combination  of  threads  on  a  loom. 
Hand  weaving  was  known  in  prehistoric  times,  but  the  modern 
art  of  weaving  dates  from  John  Kay's  invention  of  the  flying 
shuttle  (Vol.  IX,  p.  42),  in  1738,  and  Dr.  Cartwright's  invention 
of  the  power  loom  about  1784  (Vol.  IX,  p.  43).  See  "An  Indus- 
trial Revolution,"  Vol.  IX,  p.  5;  and  "The  Manufacture  of  Tex- 
tiles," Vol.  IX,  p.  38. 

Wedge.  A  special  application  of  the  inclined  plane,  con- 
sisting of  a  very  acute-angled  triangular  prism  of  hard  material 
driven  between  objects  to  separate  them.  The  screw  is  also  an 
example  of  the  use  of  the  inclined  plane,  but  is  used  for  an  en- 
tirely different  purpose  from  the  wedge,  the  object  of  its  use 
being  to  hold  objects  together. 

Wheel.     A  circular  disk  or  frame  turning  on  an  axis.     The 

[53] 


TECHNICAL  INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

wheel  is  a  lever  of  the  first  class,  of  which  the  axle  constitutes 
the  fulcrum.  See  "Wheels  and  Pulleys,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  32. 

Windlass.  A  modification  of  the  wheel  and  axle,  consisting 
of  a  cylinder  rotating  on  an  axis  propelled  by  a  long  handle,  or 
handles,  a  rope  or  chain  being  wound  about  the  cylinder.  It 
is  a  lever  of  the  second  class,  the  axle  representing  the  fulcrum. 

Windmills.  Machines  utilizing  the  pressure  of  the  wind  as  a 
motive  power.  The  usual  type  of  windmill  consists  of  a  series 
of  inclined  planes,  each  of  which  forms  one  of  the  radii  of  a 
circle,  or  spokes  of  a  wheel,  to  the  axle  of  which  a  gearing  is 
adjusted  by  which  the  power  generated  is  utilized.  Windmills 
seem  to  be  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  as  there  is  no  authen- 
tic record  of  their  use  prior  to  about  uoo  A.D.  See  "The  Work 
of  Air  and  Water,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  62. 

Wind,  Air  naturally  in  motion  at  the  earth's  surface.  All 
winds  come  under  the  influence  of  the  earth's  rotation  in  such 
a  way  as  to  be  deflected  from  their  course,  and  hence  take  on 
a  gyratory  motion.  See  Vol.  Ill,  p.  200. 

Wireless  Telegraph.  In  the  modern  sense,  an  electric  tele- 
graph which  utilizes  electro-magnetic  waves  ("Hertzian  waves") 
in  the  ether  in  place  of  wire,  or  other  conductors,  for  sending 
and  receiving  messages.  There  are  several  other  methods  of 
using  the  electric  current  besides  this,  but  none  that  are  effective 
for  long  distances.  See  "Wireless  Telegraphy,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  47. 

Wireless  Telephone.  A  telephone  which  utilizes  Hertzian 
waves  in  the  ether  in  place  of  wire  conductors  of  the  electric 
current.  The  first  practical  wireless  telephone  system  was  the 
invention  of  Dr.  Lee  DeForest,  an  American,  which  was  ex- 
hibited publicly  in  1907.  See  "The  Wireless  Telephone,"  Vol. 
VIII,  p.  88. 


154] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

(The  matter  under  this  alphabet  constitutes  at  once  a 
Biographical  Reference  Index  and  a  condensed  Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  the  Important  names  in  every 
department  of  science.  The  figures  following  the  names 
refer  to  the  text  by  volume  and  page.  The  reading  mat- 
ter is  complementary  to  the  matter  of  the  Technical 
Index  and  Glossary,  and  of  the  General  Index,  and  to 
some  extent  supplementary  of  the  text  itself.) 

Abd-el-Letif,  or  Abd-ul-Latif,  ii,  21.  Born  at 
Bagdad,  1162;  died  at  Bagdad,  1231.  Arabian 
scholar  and  author  of  multifarious  acquirements. 
He  labored  unceasingly  in  his  early  years  to 
acquire  all  the  knowledge  of  his  age. 
Lived  at  Damascus  and  spent  many  years  in 
Egypt,  of  which  country  he  has  left  an  excellent 
and  accurate  account.  Devoted  much  time  to 
study  of  medicine. 

Adams,  John  Couch,  iii,  42,  48.  Born  at  Corn- 
wall, England,  1819;  died  at  Cambridge,  1892. 
At  an  early  age  he  displayed  a  great  aptitude 
for  mathematics  and  became  a  mathematical 
tutor  at  Cambridge.  In  1841  he  set  himself  to 
the  task  of  discovering  the  cause  of  the  irregu- 
larities in  the  motion  of  the  planet  Uranus,  and 
in  October,  1844,  wrote  an  account  of  the  exist- 
ence of  a  new  planet  and  gave  its  location.  This, 
unfortunately,  he  did  not  publish.  Leverrier,  in 
France,  took  up  the  same  subject  in  1845,  anc^ 
announced  the  existence  of  Neptune  in  Novem- 
ber of  that  year.  Hence  he  obtained  the  whole 
honor  of  the  discovery,  which  Adams  should 
have  shared.  In  1858  Adams  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  St.  Andrews,  Cam- 

[551 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

bridge,  and  shortly  afterward  became  Lowndean 
professor  of  astronomy  at  the  same  university. 

Aetius,  ii,  31.  ("The  Atheist.")  Born  at  An- 
tioch;  died  at  Constantinople,  367.  He  was  born  a 
slave.  Studied  medicine  and  theology,  became  a 
deacon,  and  developed  the  doctrine  known  as 
Aethian  heresy,  which  carried  the  ideas  of  Arius 
to  their  logical  issue.  Constantine  banished  him 
from  Antioch  for  his  Arian  tendencies.  The 
Emperor  Julian  made  him  a  bishop,  but  he  died 
in  disgrace  owing  to  his  profligate  habits. 

Agassiz,  Jean  Louis  Randolphe,  iii,  147.  Born 
in  Switzerland,  1807;  died  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
1873.  One  of  the  most  distinguished  of  modern 
naturalists.  While  at  the  universities  of  Heidel- 
berg and  Munich  comparative  anatomy  was 
the  special  subject  of  his  study,  but  he  became 
more  interested  in  ichthyology,  when  the  Spix 
collection  of  fish  was  left  in  his  care  (1826). 
Studied  and  wrote  much  on  fish  and  their  fossil 
remains.  1847  published  "The  System  of  Gla- 
ciers," which  advanced  some  new  and  original 
views  in  geology.  •  Came  to  United  States  in 
1846,  and  afterward  became  professor  at  Har- 
vard. In  "Outlines  of  Comparative  Physiology" 
he  holds  to  the  belief  in  the  special  creation  of 
species,  and  opposed  the  Darwinian  theory. 

Airy,  Sir,  G.  B.,  vii,  n.  Born  at  Alnwick, 
Northumberland,  July  27,  1801 ;  died  at  Green- 
wich, Jan.  2,  1892.  Director  of  the  Greenwich 
Observatory  and  Astronomer  Royal,  1836-1881. 
First  to  suggest  the  use  of  permanent  magnets 
on  ships  for  compensating  the  influence  of  iron 
structures  upon  the  compass. 

Albategnius,  Mohammed  ben  Jabir,  ii,    15. 

[56] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

Born  at  Mesopotamia  cir.  850;  died,  929.  The 
greatest  of  Arabian  astronomers,  who  discov- 
ered the  motion  of  the  sun.  Made  observations 
steadily  for  over  60  years  at  the  Euphrates  and 
at  Antioch  in  Syria.  Wrote  "The  Science  of 
the  Stars."  Improved  Ptolemy's  table  and  came 
very  close  to  ascertaining  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic.  His  observations  were  the  foundations 
of  the  Alphonsine  table  of  the  Moon's  motion. 

Albertus  Magnus  (Albert  Count  of  Bollstadt), 
ii,  127.  Born  at  Swabia,  1193  or  1205  (accounts 
vary) ;  died  at  Cologne,  1280.  Became  Domini- 
can friar  after  studying  at  Padua,  and  taught  in 
many  places.  Went  to  Paris  1230,  and  devoted 
himself  to  spreading  the  doctrine  of  Aristotle  in 
spite  of  the  prohibition  of  the  Church.  In  1260 
was  made  Bishop  of  Ratisbon.  1262  retired  to 
a  convent  at  Cologne  and  devoted  rest  of  life 
to  literary  pursuits. 

Albucasis  (or  Albucasim),  ii,  25.  Born  near 
Cordova,  Spain;  died,  1106.  Famous  Arabic 
physician  and  author  of  "Al-Tasrif,"  a  medical 
encyclopaedia,  containing  the  best  treatise  on 
surgery  that  has  come  to  us  from  antiquity. 

Alcmaeon,  i,  126.  Born  at  Crotona,  Italy,  sec- 
ond half  of  Sixth  Century  B.C.  Greek  physician 
and  naturalist.  Was  the  first  man  to  practice 
dissection,  by  which  he  made  many  valuable 
discoveries  in  anatomy.  Author  of  "On  Na- 
ture." 

Alfonso  X,  ii,  17.  Born  in  1221 ;  died  in  1284. 
King  of  Leon  and  Castile.  Most  learned  prince 
of  his  time.  The  chief  debt  of  science  to  him 
is  the  Alfonsine  Tables,  which  he  had  compiled 
by  fifty  of  the  most  celebrated  astronomers  of 

[57] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

the  age.  Their  purpose  was  to  correct  and 
replace  the  Ptolemaic  planetary  tables,  which 
were  full  of  errors. 

Alhazen  (full  name,  Abu  AH  Al-Hasan  Ibn 
Alhasan),  ii,  18.  Born  at  Bassora  cir.  965;  died 
at  Cairo  cir.  1039.  Arabian  physicist  and  natu- 
ralist. Wrote  important  work  on  Optics.  Fa- 
mous for  the  geometrical  problem  bearing  his 
name. 

Amici,  Giovanni  Battista,  iv,  112.  Born  at 
Modena,  1786;  died  at  Florence,  1864.  Italian 
astronomer,  director  of  the  Florence  Observa- 
tory. He  designed  and  constructed  many  valu- 
able astronomical  and  physical  instruments. 
Was  also  interested  in  botany. 

Ampere,  Andre,  iii,  239,  iv,  43.  Born  at  Lyons, 
1775;  died  at  Marseilles,  1836.  French  mathe- 
matician, physicist  and  naturalist.  Taught  in 
several  places,  and  finally  with  great  distinction 
at  the  fecole  Polytechnique,  Paris.  Science  is 
most  indebted  to  him  for  his  researches  in  elec- 
tricity and  magnetism.  Invented  the  astatic 
needle.  Showed  identity  between  magnetism 
and  electricity.  Showed  attraction  and  repul- 
sion in  parallel  conductors  of  electricity,  with 
currents  flowing  in  same  or  opposite  direction. 
The  unit  of  strength  in  electric  current  is  named 
after  him. 

Anaxagoras,  i,  240.  Born  in  Ionia  cir.  500 
B.C.;  died  at  Lampsacus,  428.  Taught  at 
Athens.  The  last  Greek  philosopher  of  the 
Ionian  school.  His  great  service  to  the  world 
was  that  he  turned  philosophy  from  thought 
about  things  to  thought  in  itself.  He  defined  a 
new  principle,  Mind  as  acting  on  matter,  which 

[58] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

dualistic  theory  was  further  developed  by  Plato 
and  Aristotle.  He  was  banished  from  Athens 
for  the  impiety  of  his  explanation  of  natural 
phenomena.  He  may  have  been  guilty  of  disre- 
spect for  the  gods,  but  he  came  very  near  to 
being  right  in  his  explanation  of  the  causes  of 
the  rainbow,  the  Moon's  light,  the  winds,  and 
the  origin  of  sound.  He  died  a  wanderer  in 
exile. 

Anaximander,  i,  109.  Born  at  Miletus,  610 
B.C.;  died  in  546  B.C.  Successor  of  Thales  as 
head  of  the  Ionian  School;  was  a  great  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer,  as  well  as  philosopher. 
Taught  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  intro- 
duced the  sun-dial  into  Greece.  It  is  believed 
that  he  invented  geographical  maps.  Conceived 
the  universe  as  a  series  of  concentric  cylinders. 
As  a  philosopher  he  believed  the  phenomenal 
world  to  proceed  from  some  indefinite  or  inde- 
terminate principle,  similar,  perhaps,  to  the 
chaos  of  other  philosophers.  There  was  no  such 
thing  as  creation  out  of  nothing,  but  the  atoms 
of  primary  matter  change  their  relative  posi- 
tions through  some  innate  power  and  become 
the  contents  of  the  phenomenal  world. 

Anaximenes,  i,  109.  Born  at  Miletus,  flour- 
ished Sixth  Century,  B.C.  He  taught  that  air 
was  the  primary  form  of  matter,  and  that  all 
things  were  formed  from  it  by  compression. 

Arago,  Dominique  Francois,  iii,  67.  Born  at 
Estagel,  France,  1786;  died  at  Paris,  1853. 
French  physicist  and  astronomer.  Became  pro- 
fessor of  analytical  geometry  and  geodesy  at  the 
ficole  Polytechnique,  Paris,  but  afterward  de- 
voted more  attention  to  astronomy,  electricity, 

[59] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

galvanism  and  the  polarization  of  light.  He 
proved  the  value  of  the  undulatory  theory  of 
light.  He  continued  Oersted's  discoveries  in 
electromagnetism,  by  showing  that  an  unmag- 
netized  bar  of  steel  or  iron  could  be  magnetized 
by  a  voltaic  current.  He  also  showed  the  fact 
of  magnetization  by  rotation. 

Archimedes,  i,  196.  Born  cir.  287  B.C. ;  killed 
at  capture  of  Syracuse,  212  B.C.  Syracusan 
mathematician,  the  most  famous  of  all  antiquity. 
Developed  pure  geometry,  and  applied  mathe- 
matical theories  to  mechanics.  Invented  hy- 
draulic screw,  and  is  given  credit  for  explaining 
principle  of  lever.  Constructed  catapults  and 
other  engines  which  delayed  the  fall  of  Syracuse 
(212  B.C.). 

Aristarchus  of  Samos,  i,  212.  Lived  first  half 
Third  Century,  B.C.  Alexandrian  astronomer. 
Made  many  observations  of  which  we  know  only 
a  few.  He  calculated  the  relative  distances  of 
sun  and  moon  from  earth.  His  theory  of  calcu- 
lation was  correct,  but  inaccurate  in  practice. 
It  is  said  that  with  the  Pythagoreans  he  be- 
lieved the  earth  to  revolve  around  the  sun. 

Aristotle,  i,  82.  Born  at  Stagira,  384  B.C.; 
died  at  Chalcis,  322  B.C.  Greek  philosopher 
and  scientist.  After  living  in  various  places 
and  teaching,  he  settled  at  Athens  and  opened 
the  so-called  peripatetic  school.  As  a  scientist 
he  treated  of  astronomy,  zoology,  mechanics 
and  physics  at  considerable  length.  His  two 
chief  mental  faculties  were  great  aptitude  for 
observation,  and  a  logical  method,  which  lay  in 
the  assiduous  collection  of  facts,  and  the  draw- 
ing of  inductions  from  them.  In  this  he  com- 

[60] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

pletely  discarded  the  pre-existing  "ideas"  or 
"forms"  of  Plato.  His  "System  of  Logic"  is  the 
basis  of  that  used  at  the  present  day.  He  was 
for  three  years  the  tutor  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Arkwright,  Sir  Richard,  ix,  17.  Born  at 
Preston,  England,  Dec.  23,  1732;  died  at  Crom- 
ford,  Derbyshire,  England,  Aug.  3,  1792.  In- 
vented the  cotton-spinning  frame,  or  "water- 
frame,"  a  device  that  revolutionized  spinning. 
He  began  life  as  a  barber,  and  his  early  inven- 
tions were  made  in  leisure  hours  when  not  work- 
ing at  his  trade.  He  amassed  an  enormous  for- 
tune as  a  result  of  his  invention,  and  in  1786  was 
knighted  by  George  III. 

Arnold  of  Villanova,  ii,  34.  Born  cir.  1240; 
died  in  1313.  Nationality  unknown.  A  physi- 
cian, alchemist,  and  astrologer,  who  taught  at 
Paris,  Barcelona,  and  Montpellier.  He  has  been 
incorrectly  credited  with  the  discovery  of  hydro- 
chloric, nitric,  and  sulphuric  acids.  These  were 
certainly  known  before  his  time. 

Arrhenius,  Svante.  Born  at  Upsala,  1859. 
Swedish  physical  chemist,  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Stockholm.  His  theory  of  electrolytic 
dissociation,  which  he  has  established,  is  one  of 
the  most  important  of  recent  contributions  to 
science.  It  is  that  if  a  current  is  passed  through 
a  substance  whose  aqueous  solution  is  capable  of 
conducting  electricity,  it  is  broken  up  in  solu- 
tion into  parts  of  the  composing  elements 
charged,  some  with  positive  and  others  with 
negative  electricity.  The  existence  of  positive 
and  negative  "ions"  has  explained  a  number  of 
chemical  phenomena  hitherto  incomprehensible. 

Arzachel,  ii,  16.  Born  in  Spain,  cir.  1050. 
[61] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Arabian  astronomer.  Discovered  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic  and  compiled  the  "Toledo"  astro- 
nomical tables. 

Avenbrugger,  Leopold,  iv,  200.  Born  at  Gratz, 
1722;  died  at  Vienna,  1809.  Viennese  physician 
who  introduced  the  method  of  percussion  diag- 
nosis, by  applying  ear  to  the  chest  and  noting 
the  result  of  hand  taps  on  the  patient.  Also  an 
insanity  expert. 

Avenzoar  (Abu  Merwan  Abelmalec  ibu  Zohr), 
ii,  26.  Born  at  Seville,  1072;  died  at  Seville, 
1162.  A  Spanish-Arabian  physician  who  labored 
hard  to  have  the  experimental  method  applied 
to  study  of  medicine. 

Averrhoes,  ii,  10.  Born  at  Cordova,  cir.  1126; 
died  at  Morocco,  1198.  Spanish-Arabian  philos- 
opher and  jurist.  Was  physician  to  Caliph  of 
Morocco.  He  was  an  ardent  advocate  of  the 
Aristotlean  method,  as  applied  to  medical  and 
other  sciences. 

Avicenna,  Arabian  "Prince  of  Physicians,"  ii, 
24.  Born  near  Bokhara,  980;  died  at  Ispahan 
cir.  1037.  Arabic  physician  and  philosopher. 
After  an  adventurous  existence,  he  finally  set- 
tled as  court  physician  to  Ala  Adda-ula  at  Ispa- 
han. His  great  work  "Kanun  fi'l  Tibb,"  is  a  sys- 
tem of  medicine  still  highly  regarded  in  the 
Orient.  Was  a  disciple  of  Aristotle. 

Avogadro,  Amadeo,  iv,  43.  Born  at  Turin, 
1776;  died  at  Turin,  1856.  Italian  physicist. 
Professor  at  Turin.  Formulated  the  famous  rule 
known  by  his  name.  It  is  one  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  chemistry — equal  volumes 
of  gas  contain  equal  number  of  molecules  under 
same  conditions  of  pressure  and  temperature. 

[62] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

Bacon,  Francis,  ii,  192.  Born  at  London, 
1561;  died  at  Highgate,  1626.  English  philoso- 
pher and  statesman.  Educated  at  Cambridge, 
was  attached  to  Embassy  in  France,  1576.  En- 
tered Parliament,  1584.  Knighted,  1603;  held 
many  political  offices  up  to  Lord  Chancellor, 
1618,  and  tried  for  bribery,  removed  and  fined, 
1621.  He  was  a  great  reformer  of  methods  of 
scientific  investigation,  and  one  of  the  chief 
founders  of  modern  inductive  science.  Chief 
works,  "Novum  Organum"  and  "Advancement 
of  Learning." 

Bacon,  Roger,  ii,  44.  Born  at  Ilchester,  cir. 
1214;  died  at  Oxford  (probably)  1294.  English 
monk  and  philosopher.  Studied  at  Oxford, 
Paris,  returned  to  England  and  entered  Fran- 
ciscan order  at  Oxford,  where  he  carried  on  re- 
searches in  alchemy  and  optics.  Was  removed 
to  Paris,  1257,  after  having  been  accused  of  un- 
orthodoxy  and  dealing  with  the  black  art.  All 
writing  materials  and  instruments  were  taken 
from  him.  Despite  the  Franciscan  prohibition, 
he  prepared  his  "Opus  Majus"  at  the  request  of 
Pope  Clement  IV.  This  was  an  encyclopaedia  of 
all  the  science  and  knowledge  of  the  time.  Ten 
years  after  Clement's  death  he  was  free 
to  do  as  he  liked,  but  was  imprisoned  again  by 
Pope  Nicholas  III,  and  his  books  forbidden  to 
be  read.  He  had  found  out  much  in  the  way  of 
chemistry  and  by  some  is  credited  with  knowing 
of  the  existence  of  gunpowder.  He  studied 
much  in  optics  and  corrected  many  errors  in  the 
calendar. 

Baglivi,  Giorgio,  iv,  182.  Born  at  Ragusa,  Sic- 
ily, 1669;  died  at  Rome,  1707.  Italian  physician 

[63] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

of  Armenian  extraction.  Went  to  Rome  and 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Anatomy  at  the  Col- 
lege di  Sapienza.  He  was  the  first  to  propound 
the  medical  doctrine  of  "solidism,"  according  to 
which  the  primary  seat  of  disease  is  in  the  solid 
parts  of  the  organism,  and  not  in  the  fluid,  as 
was  believed  up  to  that  time. 

Bastian,  Henry  Charlton,  iv,  180.  Born  at 
Cornwall,  1837.  English  physician  and  biolo- 
gist. Professor  in  University  College,  Lon- 
don. Noted  nerve  specialist.  Strong  defender 
of  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation. 

Becquerel,  Alexandra  Edmond,  viii,  235.  Born 
at  Paris,  1820;  died  at  Paris,  1891.  French  phys- 
icist, son  of  Antoine  Cesar.  Member  of  Academy 
of  Science,  1863.  In  1878  succeeded  his  father  as 
Professor  of  Physics  at  the  Conservatoire  des 
Arts  et  Metiers.  Researches  in  electricity,  op- 
tics and  photography.  Well  known  for  his  work 
on  the  Solar  spectrum. 

Becquerel,  Antoine  Henri,  v,  98.  Born  at 
Paris,  1852;  died  at  Paris,  1908.  French  physi- 
cist, Professor  of  Physics  in  the  ficole  Polytech- 
nique,  Paris.  His  researches  have  been  mainly 
concerned  with  optics,  chiefly  the  invisible  radia- 
tion from  uranium,  known  as  the  Becquerel  rays. 

Behring,  Emil  Adolf,  iv,  242.  Born  at  Hans- 
dorf,  Prussia,  1854.  German  physician  who  in 
1895  became  director  of  the  Hygienic  Institute 
at  Marburg.  Most  noted  for  his  discovery  of 
diphtheria  serum.  He  made  a  special  study  of 
the  question  of  immunity  from  disease. 

Barthez,  Paul  Joseph,  iv,  185.  Born  at  Mont- 
pellier,  1734;  died  at  Paris,  1806.  French  physi- 
cian. Became  Professor  of  Medicine  Montpel- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

Her  University,  1761.  He  formulated  a  new  the- 
ory of  life — that  of  a  vital  principle  in  the  living 
organism,  which  is  different  from  both  the  think- 
ing mind  and  the  physical  forces  of  the  body. 
The  life  of  each  separate  organ  is  a  particular 
manifestation  of  the  vital  principle.  He  made 
no  experiments  to  substantiate  his  views. 

Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  viii,  73.  Born  at 
Edinburgh,  1847.  American  inventor  and  scien- 
tist. Educated  in  Great  Britain,  came  to  Can- 
ada, 1870.  He  became  greatly  interested  in  his 
father's  system  of  instruction  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  and  after  his  appointment  as  Professor  of 
Vocal  Physiology  at  Boston  University,  1872, 
began  the  experiments  which  led  to  the  inven- 
tion of  the  telephone.  Has  also  invented  the 
photophone,  which  transmits  sounds  by  waves 
of  light;  also  the  graphophone. 

Bell,  Alexander  Melville,  viii,  78.  Born  at 
Edinburgh,  1819.  Scottish-American  educator. 
After  teaching  at  Edinburgh  and  London  Uni- 
versities came  to  Queen's  College,  Kingston, 
Canada,  and  later,  1881,  removed  to  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.  Inventor  of  the  visible-speech  system 
for  teaching  deaf-mutes  to  speak. 

Bell,  Sir  Charles,  iv,  249.  Born  at  Edinburgh, 
1-774;  died  in  1842.  Scottish  surgeon,  anatomist 
and  physiologist.  In  early  life  practiced  and 
lectured  Edinburgh  and  London.  Made  a  spe- 
cial study  of  gunshot  wounds  during  the  Napo- 
leonic wars.  1826  became  head  of  medical  de- 
partment, London  University.  His  principal 
work  and  practice  was  in  connection  with  nerv- 
ous diseases,  upon  which  he  was  a  great  au- 
thority. 

[65] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Bernard,  Claude,  iv,  137.  Born  at  St.  Julien, 
1813;  died  at  Paris,  1878.  French  physiologist. 
Educated  in  Paris,  he  succeeded  Magendie  as 
Professor  of  Experimental  Physiology  at  the 
College  de  France,  1855,  having  been  chosen  for 
the  Academy  of  Science  the  previous  year. 
Founded  the  Societe  de  Biologic,  and  was  its 
president  from  1867.  His  most  distinguished 
work  was  in  connection  with  the  secretions  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  and  the  action  of  the  nerv- 
ous system  on  them.  He  was  the  first  to  show 
that  the  pancreatic  juice  was  the  true  agent  of 
the  digestion  of  fatty  substances.  When  he 
died  his  funeral  was  conducted  at  the  public 
expense,  an  honor  never  before  given  to  a  man 
of  science. 

Berosus,  i,  58.  Lived  and  wrote  first  half  of 
Third  Century,  B.C.  Greek  historian,  a  priest 
of  Belus  at  Babylon.  Wrote  three  books  on 
Babylonian  history,  which  are  of  interest  for 
their  agreement  with  the  early  Hebrew  records. 

Berthelot,  Pierre  Eugene  Marcellin.  Born  at 
Paris,  1827;  died  at  Paris,  1907.  French  chem- 
ist, educated  in  Paris,  and  devoted  his  life  to 
research  in  organic  chemistry.  His  first  achieve- 
ments attained  in  1854,  when  he  gave  his  account 
of  the  artificial  reproduction  of  natural  fats,  a 
matter  which  has  since  been  of  great  importance 
to  industry.  In  1865  a  chair  was  created  for  him 
at  the  College  de  France.  In  later  years  he  ma- 
terially increased  our  knowledge  of  every  class 
of  carbon  compound,  and  made  important  ex- 
periments with  explosives  and  aniline  dye-stuffs. 
In  1889  was  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy 
of  Science.  Has  also  taken  an  interest  in  politics. 

[66] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

1881  created  lifelong  member  of  Senate.  1886- 
1887,  Minister  Public  Affairs.  1895-1896,  Min- 
ister Foreign  Affairs. 

Berthollet,  Count  Claude  Louis,  iv,  41.  Born 
at  Savoy,  1748;  died  at  Paris,  1822.  French 
theoretical  chemist.  After  graduation  from  Tu- 
rin University  went  to  Paris  as  physician  to 
Duke  of  Orleans.  Applied  himself  to  chemistry, 
working  out  the  theories  of  Lavoisier  and  Priest- 
ly. Was  the  first  to  discover  the  composition  of 
ammonia.  In  1794  was  made  professor  at  the 
ficole  Normale.  His  visit  to  Egypt  with  Na- 
poleon's expedition  led  to  the  foundation  of  the 
Institute  of  Cairo.  With  Lavoisier,  he  devised 
the  system  of  chemical  nomenclature  still  in  the 
main  employed. 

Berzelius,  Johan  Jakob,  iv,  41.  Born  at  Wes- 
terlosa,  Sweden,  1779;  died  at  Stockholm,  1848. 
Swedish  chemist.  After  graduation  at  Upsala, 
devoted  himself  to  chemistry.  1807  became  Pro- 
fessor of  Medicine  and  Pharmacy  at  Stockholm. 
Accomplished  a  prodigious  amount  of  work  in 
chemistry.  His  discoveries  and  views  gave  a 
firm  foundation  to  inorganic  chemistry.  He 
established  the  laws  of  combination.  Famous 
for  his  analyses  and  discoveries  (including  sev- 
eral elements)  with  the  blow-pipe.  Interest  in 
his  theory,  that  chemical  combination  was  the 
result  of  electrical  attraction,  although  aban- 
doned for  many  years,  has  recently  been  revived 
owing  to  the  researches  of  his  famous  fellow- 
countryman,  Arrhenius,  although  considerable 
modification  of  it  is  necessary. 

Bessel,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  iii,  42.  Born  at 
Minden,  1784;  died  at  Konigsberg,  1846.  Ger- 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

man  astronomer;  has  been  called  with  some  rea- 
son the  father  of  modern  observational  astron- 
omy. Became  astronomer  in  opposition  to  his 
parents'  wishes,  and  in  1810  was  Professor  of 
Astronomy  and  Observatory  Director  at  Konigs- 
berg.  He  determined  the  parallax  of  61  Cyngi, 
and  made  the  first  measurement  of  distance  of 
a  star  from  the  solar  system.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  to  consider  the  personal  equation  of 
astronomers. 

Bessemer,  Sir  Henry,  vi,  291.  Born  at  Charl- 
ton,  England,  1813;  died  in  1898.  English  in- 
ventor. He  turned  his  attention  at  an  early 
age  to  mechanical  inventions.  Devised  a  method 
of  impressing  stamp  of  internal  revenue  office 
in  order  to  prevent  forgeries.  Made  a  gold  paint 
which  was  very  successful  commercially.  Dur- 
ing Crimean  War  turned  his  attention  to  ma- 
king stronger  cannon.  He  first  produced  an 
improved  form  of  cast-iron,  and  finally  steel  by 
bringing  air  into  contact  with  molten  iron.  The 
Bessemer  process  had  a  marked  effect  in  cheap- 
ening cost  of  steel,  and  making  it  available  for 
all 'kinds  of  engineering  work.  Invented  also  a 
method  of  compounding  graphite  into  a  solid 
block  for  pencil  making,  a  method  of  type-cast- 
ing, and  several  other  processes. 

Bichat,  Marie  Francois,  iv,  107.  Born  at  Thoi- 
rette,  1771 ;  died  at  Paris,  1802.  French  anato- 
mist and  physiologist.  Ended  his  brilliant  career 
at  an  early  age  through  overwork.  He  lectured 
on  anatomy  and  was  physician  in  the  Hotel 
Dieu,  Paris.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  science 
of  pathological  anatomy,  and  was  the  first  to 
[68] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

show  that  the  different  organisms  have  mem- 
branes and  tissues  in  common. 

Biot,  Jean  Baptiste,  iii,  168.  Born  at  Paris, 
1774;  died  at  Paris,  1862.  French  physician  and 
astronomer.  Forsook  the  army  for  science. 
1880  became  Professor  of  Physics  in  the  Col- 
lege de  France.  Assisted  in  measuring  the  arc 
of  the  meridian  as  the  basis  for  the  metric  sys- 
tem. Associated  with  Arago  in  many  of  his 
experiments,  and  with  Gay-Lussac  made  the 
first  balloon  ascension  for  scientific  purposes. 
Made  valuable  contributions  with  regard  to  po- 
larization of  light. 

Birch,  Samuel,  i,  27.  Born  at  London,  1813; 
died  at  London,  1885.  English  archaeologist. 
Keeper  of  Oriental  antiquities  in  the  British 
Museum.  Made  a  special  study  of  the  Egyptian 
hieroglyphics. 

Black,  Joseph,  iv,  12.  Born  at  Bordeaux, 
France,  1728;  died  at  Edinburgh,  1799.  Scot- 
tish chemist.  In  1754  took  his  degree  in  medi- 
cine at  Edinburgh.  Was  professor  of  anatomy 
and  Lecturer  on  Chemistry  at  Glasgow.  1766 
was  made  Professor  of  Chemistry  at  Edinburgh. 
He  first  clearly  established  the  existence  of 
carbonic  acid  gas,  and  evolved  the  theory  of  lat- 
ent heat,  which  opened  the  way  for  Watt's  im- 
provements in  the  steam-engine. 

Bond,  William  Cranch,  iii,  44.  Born  at  Port- 
land, Me.,  1789;  died  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1859. 
A  self-educated  American  astronomer  who  at- 
tracted much  attention  by  his  discoveries  at  his 
private  observatory,  Dorchester,  Mass.  Super- 
vised the  construction  of  Harvard  Observatory 
and  became  its  director.  Invented  a  method  of 

[69] 


KEY   AND   INDEX 

measuring  time  to  the  very  small  fraction  of  a 
second.  Noted  for  his  work  in  stellar  photog- 
raphy. 

Boerhaave,  Hermann,  iv,  182.  Born  near  Ley- 
den,  1668;  died  at  Leyden,  1738.  Dutch  physi- 
cian. Educated  for  the  ministry.  He  began  in 
1690  to  study  medicine,  in  which  he  was  largely 
self-educated.  Rose  in  the  profession  until  he 
became  Professor  of  Medicine  at  Leyden  (1709). 
He  devised  a  new  system  of  medicine,  which  he 
explained  in  two  great  works.  Also  an  investi- 
gator in  botany  and  chemistry.  His  fame  as  a 
physician  was  world-wide. 

Borelli,  Giovanni  Alphonse,  ii,  188.  Born  near 
Naples,  1608;  died  at  Rome,  1679.  Italian  physi- 
cian and  mathematician.  Founder  of  the  iatro- 
physical  school.  Educated  in  Florence,  pro- 
fessor in  Pisa  and  Messina.  Driven  from  latter 
place  for  participation  in  political  revolt,  he 
spent  remaining  years  in  Rome.  Seems  to  have 
been  first  to  discover  parabolic  paths  of  comets. 
Wrote  book  on  animal  motion,  attempting  to 
apply  principles  of  mechanisms  to  movements 
of  animals. 

Boscovich,  Roger  Joseph,  iii,  293.  Born  at 
Ragusa,  Dalmatia,  1711;  died  at  Milan,  1787. 
Italian  astronomer  and  mathematician.  Joined 
Jesuit  order.  Taught  in  Rome  and  afterward  in 
Paris.  In  1758  advanced  a  molecular  theory  of 
matter.  Wrote  on  many  subjects  in  physical 
science,  and  was  first  to  introduce  Newton's 
theories  into  Italy.  Died  insane. 

Bose,  George  Matthias,  ii,  274.  Born  at  Leip- 
sic,  1710;  died  at  Magdeburg,  1761.  German 
physicist  and  physician.  Taught  in  Leipsic,  and 

[70] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

after  1738  Professor  of  Physics  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wittenberg.  At  the  bombardment  of 
that  city,  1760,  he  was  taken  as  hostage  by  the 
Prussians  to  Magdeburg,  where  he  died  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Made  researches  and  wrote  on 
astronomy,  physics,  and  electricity. 

Boyle,  Robert,  ii,  205.  Born  at  Waterford, 
Ireland,  1627;  died  at  London,  1691.  Irish  physi- 
cist and  chemist.  Studied  at  Eton  and  on  the 
Continent.  Devoted  himself  to  science.  One  of 
the  originators  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1654 
settled  at  Oxford  and  experimented  in  pneu- 
matics, improving  the  air-pump.  Was  very 
active  in  religion.  Formulated  independently 
of  Mariotte  the  law  of  gases  known  by  his  name. 
Succeeded  Bacon  in  the  reputation  of  being  the 
greatest  English  scientist  of  his  time. 

Bradley,  James,  iii,  13.  Born  at  Sherborne, 
England,  1693;  died  at  Chalford,  1762.  English 
astronomer.  Educated  at  Oxford.  1721  ap- 
pointed to  Savilian  Chair  of  Astronomy,  Oxford. 
1729  announced  discovery  of  aberration  of  light. 
1742  appointed  Astronomer  Royal  and  made 
many  important  discoveries  at  Greenwich, 
among  them  nutation  of  the  earth's  axis.  By 
procuring  new  instruments,  he  made  the  Royal 
Observatory  the  first  of  the  great  modern  ob- 
servatories. Newton  called  him  "the  best  as- 
tronomer in  Europe." 

Brahe,  Tycho,  i,  217.  Born  at  Knudstrup, 
Sweden,  1546;  died  at  Prague,  1601.  Danish 
astronomer,  educated  at  Copenhagen.  Destined 
for  law,  but  persisted  in  studying  astronomy,  in 
which  he  made  many  discoveries.  1572  discov- 
ered a  new  and  brilliant  star  in  Cassiopeia. 

[71] 


KEY  AND   INDEX 

Frederick  II  of  Denmark  took  him  under  his 
protection,  and  built  the  famous  Uranienborg 
Observatory  for  him,  where  he  worked  assidu- 
ously for  over  twenty  years.  After  Frederick's 
death  he  went  to  Prague  on  invitation  of  Em- 
peror Rudolph  II,  but  died  soon  after.  He  re- 
jected the  Copernican  system. 

Braid,  Dr.  James,  iv,  269.  Born  at  Fife,  Scot- 
land, cir.  1796;  died  at  Manchester,  England, 
1860.  English  physician.  Educated  at  Edin- 
burgh, settled  in  Manchester.  Noted  for  his  re- 
searches on  the  subject  of  animal  magnetism. 
Invented  the  term  "neurohypnotism,"  which 
was  shortened  into  hypnotism. 

Brennan,  Louis,  vii,  195.  Born  at  Castlebar, 
Ireland,  Jan.  28,  1852.  Engineer  and  inventor. 
First  came  into  prominence  as  the  inventor  of 
a  torpedo  for  the  British  Government.  Later 
invented  the  practical  mono-rail  gyro  car,  pub- 
lic exhibitions  of  a  full-sized  model  of  which 
were  given  in  1909. 

Brewster,  Sir  David,  iv,  no.  Born  at  Jed- 
burgh,  Scotland,  1781 ;  died  at  Montrose,  1868. 
Scottish  physicist.  Educated  for  Church  of 
Scotland  at  Edinburgh,  but  turned  his  attention 
to  science — especially  optics.  Invented  the  ka- 
leidoscope, 1816.  Edited  "Edinburgh  Encyclo- 
paedia," and  assisted  in  establishing  the  "Edin- 
burgh Philosophical  Journal";  one  of  the  chief 
originators  of  the  British  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science.  Discoverer  of  the  po- 
larization of  light.  1819  chosen  principal  of 
Edinburgh  University. 

Broca,  Dr.  Paul,  iv,  272.  Born  at  Sainte  Foy, 
1824;  died  at  Paris,  1880.  French  physician  and 

[72] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

anthropologist.  Studied  in  Paris,  and  taught 
there  in  several  places.  In  1847  began  a  thorough 
study  of  anthropology.  1859  founded  the  An- 
thropological Society  of  Paris.  1876  founded 
the  Ecole  d'Anthropologie,  now  the  Anthropo- 
logical Institute.  Made  many  valuable  contri- 
butions to  anthropology.  In  1861  he  discov- 
ered the  location  of  the  seat  of  articulate  speech 
in  the  brain. 

Brown,  Robert,  iv,  115.  Born  at  Montrose, 
Scotland,  1773;  died  at  London,  1858.  Scotch 
botanist.  Educated  Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh. 
Entered  British  Army  as  assistant-surgeon.  Re- 
signed commission,  1800,  to  study  botany.  Went 
to  Australia  and  brought  back  over  4,000  speci- 
mens of  plants,  most  of  them  new  to  science. 
Adopted  the  Jussien  natural  system  and  helped 
in  its  general  substitution  for  that  of  Linnaeus. 
In  1810  took  charge  of  the  Bank's  collection, 
which  was  afterward  transferred  to  British  Mu- 
seum, where  he  became  keeper  of  the  botanical 
department. 

Brush,  Charles  Francis,  vi,  226.  Born  at  Eu- 
clid, Ohio,  March  17,  1849.  His  inventions  are 
largely  responsible  for  modern  arc-lighting  sys- 
tems. In  1881  the  French  Government  deco- 
rated him  for  his  work  in  electricity,  and  in  1900 
the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences 
awarded  him  the  Rumford  medal. 

Brugsch,  Hermann  Karl,  i,  28,  iv,  187.  Born 
at  Berlin,  1827;  died  at  Berlin,  1894.  German 
Egyptologist.  Visited  Egypt  several  times  for 
archaeological  purposes.  Professor  at  Gottingen 
University.  Director  of  the  Egyptological 
School  at  Cairo.  1881,  succeeded  Mariette  as 

[73] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

keeper  of  the  Bulak  collection.  Director  of  the 
Egyptian  Museum,  Berlin.  Wrote  valuable  His- 
tory of  Egypt. 

Brunei,  Isambard  K.,  vii,  77.  Born  at  Ports- 
mouth, 1806;  died  at  London,  1859.  English  en- 
gineer, son  of  Sir  M.  I.  Designer  of  the  "Great 
Western,"  first  steamer  built  to  cross  Atlantic, 
and  "Great  Britain"  (first  iron  ocean  steam- 
ship). Also  "Great  Eastern."  1833,  appointed 
chief  engineer  Great  Western  Railway,  and  de- 
signed a  large  part  of  the  road.  Engineer  of 
many  famous  constructions. 

Budge,  Dr.  Ernest  A.  Wallis,  i,  28.  Contempo- 
rary English  archaeologist.  Keeper  of  the  Egyp- 
tian and  Assyrian  antiquities,  British  Museum. 
Educated  at  Cambridge,  gave  special  attention  to 
Semitic  languages.  Has  conducted  excavations 
in  Egypt  and  Mesopotamia,  and  has  written  a 
great  deal  on  the  history  and  inscriptions  of 
those  countries. 

Buffon,  George  Louis  Leclerc,  Comte  de,  iv, 
149.  Born  at  Montbard,  Burgundy,  1707;  died 
at  Paris,  1788.  Studied  law  at  Dijon,  but  gave 
it  up  for  science.  Interested  at  first  in  astron- 
omy and  mathematics,  but  finally  his  talents 
turned  definitely  toward  zoology,  and  he  set  to 
work  at  a  collection  and  systematization  of  all 
the  facts  of  physical  nature.  He  was  not  quite 
equal  to  the  task,  but  his  "Natural  History" 
marks  an  epoch  in  the  study  of  natural  science, 
although  it  has  no  scientific  value,  as  most  of  his 
views  and  theories  have  been  shown  to  be  false. 

Bunsen,  Robert  Wilhelm,  iv,  69.  Born  at  Got- 
tingen,  1811;  died  at  Heidelberg,  1899.  German 
chemist.  Educated  Gottingen,  where  he  devoted 

[74] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

himself  especially  to  zoology  and  chemistry. 
Studied  also  at  Paris,  Berlin,  and  Vienna. 
Taught  various  places,  and  finally  appointed, 
1852,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  at  Heidelberg.  In- 
vented the  magnesium  light,  1860.  He  and 
Kirchoff  discovered  spectrum  analysis,  which 
have  been  the  means  of  great  advances  in  as- 
tronomy and  chemistry. 

Burnham,  S.  W.,  iii,  59.  Born  at  Thetford, 
Vermont,  1838.  American  astronomer.  A  stenog- 
rapher by  profession,  he  became  interested  in 
astronomy  and  made  a  special  study  of  double 
stars,  of  which  he  has  recorded  over  twelve 
hundred,  his  powers  of  observation  being  very 
extraordinary.  Professor  of  Practical  Astron- 
omy, University  of  Chicago. 

Calmette,  Leon  Charles,  v,  184.  Born  at  Nice, 
1863.  French  bacteriologist.  Has  made  many 
investigations  especially  relating  to  serum  poi- 
soning at  the  Pasteur  Institute,  Paris.  Also  in- 
vestigations in  tuberculosis.  Has  established 
Pasteur  and  anti-tuberculosis  institutions  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  world. 

Calvin,  John,  ii,  168.  Born  at  Noyon,  Picardy, 
1509;  died  at  Geneva,  1564.  French  religious  re- 
former. Studied  at  Paris,  Orleans,  and  Bourges. 
Joined  the  Reformation  about  1528.  After  va- 
rious vicissitudes,  settled  at  Geneva,  when  he 
finally  assisted  in  establishing  a  theocratic  gov- 
ernment and  preached  religious  doctrine,  which, 
while  severe,  had  great  influence  in  the  history 
of  the  Protestant  religion. 

Canton,  John,  ii,  295.  Born  at  Stroud,  Eng- 
land, 1/18;  died  at  London,  1772.  English  physi- 
cist. He  made  the  discovery  almost  simut- 

[75] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

taneously  with  Franklin  that  some  clouds  were 
charged  with  positive  and  others  with  negative 
electricity.  He  first  showed  the  compressibility 
of  water,  and  measured  the  quantity  of  electric- 
ity stored  in  Leyden  jars. 

Carnot,  Sadi,  iii,  255.  Born  at  Paris,  1796; 
died  at  Paris,  1832.  French  physicist.  Served 
until  1828  in  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  where  he 
found  time  for  research,  and  worked  over  the 
general  theory  of  the  heat  engine.  His  works 
mark  the  beginnings  of  the  science  of  thermo- 
dynamics. 

Carpenter,  William  B.,  iv,  122.  Born  at  Exe- 
ter, England,  1813;  died  at  London,  1885.  Eng- 
lish physiologist.  Graduate,  Edinburgh,  1839, 
wrote  many  books  on  physiology.  Registrar, 
London  University,  1856-1879.  Made  valuable 
contributions  to  the  subject  of  ocean  circulation. 

Cartwright,  Dr.  Edmund,  ix,  44.  Born  at 
Marnham,  Nottingham,  England,  April  24,  1743; 
died  at  Hastings,  England,  Oct.  30,  1823.  An 
English  clergyman  who  devoted  much  time  to 
mechanical  inventions.  His  greatest  invention, 
the  power  loom,  revolutionized  weaving. 

Cassini,  Dominic,  iii,  13.  Born  near  Nice, 
1625;  died  at  Paris,  1712.  Italian-French  as- 
tronomer. Professor  of  Astronomy  at  Bologna, 
and  afterward  director  Paris  Observatory,  which 
post  was  held  by  the  family  for  four  generations. 
His  work  was  principally  connected  with  obser- 
vations on  the  planetary  system,  orbits,  etc.  He 
assisted  in  showing  the  earth  to  be  a  spheroid. 

Caus,  or  Caulx,  Salomon  de,  vi,  83.  Born  at 
Dieppe,  1576;  died  at  Paris,  June  6,  1626.  French 
engineer.  In  1615  he  published  a  work  entitled 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

"Causes  of  Kinetic  Energy,"  in  which  He  de- 
scribed an  apparatus  for  forcing  up  water  by  a 
steam  fountain.  For  this  Arago  claimed  for 
de  Caus  the  invention  of  the  steam-engine. 

Cavendish,  Henry,  iv,  15.  Born  at  Nice,  1731 ; 
died  at  London,  1810.  English  physicist  and 
chemist.  Educated  at  Cambridge,  devoted  his 
entire  life  to  science,  and  having  inherited  con- 
siderable means,  remained  unmarried  and  lived 
the  life  of  a  recluse.  Discovered  composition  of 
water  and  devised  a  method  for  determining 
density  of  earth.  Made  many  investigations  of 
properties  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Celsius,  Anders,  vi,  14.  Born  at  Upsala, 
1701 ;  died  at  Upsala,  1744.  Swedish  astronomer. 
Professor  at  Upsala.  Took  part  in  the  French 
expedition,  1737,  to  measure  a  degree  of  the 
meridian  in  the  polar  regions.  Presented  the 
first  idea  of  the  centigrade  thermometer. 

Celsus,  Aulus  Cornelius,  ii,  40.  Probably  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  Latin  physician.  In- 
troduced the  Hippocratic  systems  among  the 
Romans.  Wrote  on  other  subjects  besides  med- 
icine. His  writings  on  surgery  are  especially 
valuable,  and  contain  much  about  the  work  and 
opinions  of  the  Alexandrian  School. 

Chabas,  Francois  Joseph,  i,  28.  Born  at  Brian- 
c,on,  1817;  died  at  Versailles,  1882.  French 
Egyptologist,  although  engaged  throughout  life 
in  business  as  a  wine  merchant.  Declined  a 
chair  in  the  College  de  France.  Became  a  lead- 
ing authority  on  the  ancient  Egyptian  language 
and  translated  many  of  the  hieroglyphic  and 
hieratic  writings. 

Chambers,  Robert,  iv,  162.     Born  at  Peebles, 

[771 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Scotland,  1802;  died  at  St.  Andrews,  1871. 
Scotch  publisher  and  writer.  Set  up  as  a  book- 
seller in  Edinburgh,  1818,  and  in  1832  started 
the  famous  publishing  house  of  W.  &  R.  Cham- 
bers, with  his  brother.  Wrote  "Vestiges  of  the 
Natural  History  of  Creation"  (1844),  which  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  acceptance  of  Darwin's 
theories. 

Champollion,  Jean  Frangois,  i,  27,  iv,  290. 
Born  at  Figeac,  France,  1790;  died  at  Paris, 
1832.  French  Egyptologist.  1807,  went  to  Paris 
to  pursue  Oriental  studies.  1814,  appointed 
Professor  of  History  at  Lyceum  of  Grenoble. 
Succeeded  in  deciphering  Egyptian  hieroglyph- 
ics, which  achievement  involved  him  in  a  con- 
troversy with  Thomas  Young  on  the  question 
of  priority  of  discovery,  although  it  is  now  gen- 
erally conceded  that  Champollion  worked  inde- 
pendently of  Young. 

Charcot,  Jean  Martin,  iv,  269.  Born  at  Paris, 
1825;  died  at  Paris,  1893.  French  physician  and 
neurologist.  Was  Professor  Pathological  Anat- 
omy, and  afterward  of  Nervous  Diseases  in  the 
Faculty  of  Medicine.  He  made  extensive  inves- 
tigations in  hypnotism  and  hypnotic  suggestion 
for  the  treatment  of  hysteria  and  kindred  dis- 
ease. 

Christy,  Henry,  iii,  104.  Born  at  Kingston, 
England,  1810;  died  at  La  Palisse,  France,  1865, 
English  ethnologist.  Made  special  study  of  the 
fossils  discovered  in  the  valley  of  the  Vezere, 
France,  and  made  valuable  contributions  to  our 
knowledge  of  primitive  man. 

Clark,  Alvan,  iii,  66.  Born  at  Ashfield,  Mass., 
1808;  died  at  Cambridge,  1887.  American  opti- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

cian.  Son  of  a  farmer,  he  taught  himself  engra- 
ving. Began  to  manufacture  telescopes  in  1844. 
Was  the  first  to  make  achromatic  lenses  in  the 
United  States.  The  lenses  of  most  of  the  great 
telescopes  of  recent  times  were  ground  at  the 
establishment  he  founded  for  such  purposes  at 
Cambridge,  Mass. 

Clausius,  Rudolf  Julius  Emanuel,  vi,  115. 
Born  at  Koslin,  Prussia,  1822;  died  at  Bonn, 
1888.  German  physicist  who  made  a  special 
study  of  thermo-dynamics. 

Colding,  Ludwig  August,  iii,  257.  Born  at 
Arnakke,  Denmark,  1815.  Danish  engineer  and 
meteorologist.  Studied  at  Copenhagen  and  be- 
came professor  there.  Made  special  investiga- 
tions of  tropical  cyclones. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  ii,  50.  Born  near 
Genoa,  Italy,  cir.  1446;  died  at  Valladolid,  Spain, 
1506.  Italian  explorer.  Started  his  career  in 
the  wool-trade.  Probably  first  went  to  sea  about 
1473,  and  lived  in  Lisbon  until  1485,  engaged  in 
map-making,  and  seafaring,  one  voyage,  1477, 
taking  him  to  Iceland.  Convinced  of  the  feasi- 
bility of  reaching  the  spice-countries  of  Asia  by 
a  westward  route,  he  sought  financial  assistance 
from  Venice  and  Portugal  without  avail.  Finally 
Queen  Isabella  became  interested.  An  expedi- 
tion was  fitted  out,  and  Columbus  reached  the 
West  Indies  (probably  Watlings  Island),  Octo- 
ber 12,  1492. 

Cope,  Professor  Edward  Drinker,  iii,  113. 
Born  at  Philadelphia,  1840;  died  at  Philadelphia, 
1897.  American  naturalist.  Studied  medicine. 
Was  Professor  of  Natural  Science,  Haverford 
College,  afterward  Professor  of  Geology,  Uni- 

[79] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

versity  of  Pennsylvania.  Made  a  special  study 
of  extincc  vertebrates.  He  belonged  to  that 
school  of  evolutionists  who  believed  that  the 
variations  caused  by  environment  are  inherited 
by  offspring,  and  upholding  these  views,  became 
involved  in  much  controversy. 

Copernicus,  Nicolaus,  ii,  54.  Born  at  Thorn, 
Prussia,  1473;  died  at  Frauenburg,  1543.  Ger- 
man astronomer.  Studied  mathematics  and 
other  sciences  at  Cracow,  afterward  in  Italy. 
Appointed  Professor  of  Mathematics  at  Rome, 
1500.  1505,  returned  to  Germany,  took  holy 
orders  and  obtained  canonry  at  Frauenburg. 
1530,  completed  his  great  work  "De  Revolution- 
ibus  Orbium,"  which  described  the  true  system 
of  the  sun,  stars  and  planets.  This  he  did  not 
publish  until  twelve  years  later,  probably 
through  fear  of  ecclesiastical  censure. 

Corvisart,  Jean  Nicolas  de,  iv,  199.  Born  at 
Drecourt,  France,  1755;  died  at  Paris,  1821. 
French  physician.  His  father  destined  him  for 
the  law,  but  he  ran  away  to  Paris,  and  concealed 
himself  in  order  to  study  medicine.  1786,  be- 
came professor  at  La  Charite  Hospital,  Paris. 
Later  on  College  de  France.  Member  Academy 
of  Sciences.  Was  first  physician  to  Napoleon  I. 
Made  valuable  contributions  to  pathological 
anatomy  regarding  diseases  of  the  heart. 

Croll,  Dr.  James,  iii,  197.  Born  at  Whitefield, 
1821 ;  died  in  1890.  Scottish  geologist.  Had  but 
little  schooling,  but  made  many  valuable  contri- 
butions of  geological  science,  especially  in  re- 
gard to  climatic  changes  during  the  glacial 
period,  and  their  origin.  Published  theories  as 
to  origin  of  sun's  heat  and  formation  of  stars 

[80] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

and  nebulae,  which,  though  widely  accepted, 
aroused  much  discussion.  Was  an  officer  of  the 
Geological  Survey  of  Scotland. 

Crompton,  Samuel,  ix,  32.  Born  at  Firwood, 
near  Bolton,  England,  Dec.  3,  1753;  died  at  Hall- 
in-the-Wood,  near  Bolton,  June  26,  1827.  An 
English  mechanic  and  inventor.  In  1779  he  in- 
vented the  "Mule,"  a  spinning  machine  vastly 
superior  to  any  machine  then  in  use. 

Crookes,  Sir  William,  iii,  249,  v,  103.  Born 
at  London,  1832.  English  physicist  and  chemist. 
Studied  and  taught  at  Royal  College  of  Chemis- 
try, Oxford,  and  Chester.  Famous  sanitary  ex- 
pert. His  experiments  with  high  vacua 
made  the  incandescent  light  possible.  Discov- 
erer of  the  element  thallium,  also  the  sodium 
amalgamation  process  for  separating  gold  and 
silver  from  their  ores.  Devised  new  method  of 
spectrum  analysis  for  which  the  radiometer  and 
otheoscope  were  invented. 

Ctesbius,  i,  243.  Born  at  Alexandria;  lived 
Third  Century  B.C.  Greek  mathematician,  and 
tutor  of  Hero.  Probably  inventor  of  the  force 
pump,  and  discoverer  of  the  elastic  force  of  air, 
with  its  possible  application  as  motive  power,  all 
of  which  has  been  described  by  Hero. 

Cunard,  Sir  Samuel,  vii,  74.  Born  at  Halifax, 
Nova  Scotia,  1787;  died  at  London,  April  28, 
1865.  A  civil  engineer,  founder  of  the  Cunard 
Steamship  Line.  The  first  ship  of  this  line,  the 
"Britannia,"  crossed  the  ocean  in  1840. 

Curie,  Professor  Pierre,  v,  100.  Born  at  Paris, 
1859;  died  at  Paris,  1906.  French  physicist. 
Educated  at  Paris,  became  Professor  of  Physics 
at  the  Sorbonne,  1895.  Noted  for  his  researches 

[81] 


KEY  AND   INDEX 

in  radio-activity.  In  conjunction  with  his  wife 
he  discovered  radium.  The  discovery  was  sug 
gested  by  the  fact  that  the  Becquerel  rays  were 
analogous  to  the  Rontgen  rays,  and  that  pitch- 
blende possessed  a  high  degree  of  radio-activity. 
By  careful  analysis  M.  and  Mme.  Curie  extracted 
minute  quantities  of  radium  bromide  in  1903, 
which  feat  seems  likely  to  lead  to  extraordinary 
results  in  physics. 

Curie,  Madame  Skaldowska,  v,  100.  Born  at 
Warsaw,  1867.  French  scientist.  Professor  in 
the  Faculty  of  Sciences,  Paris.  Wife  of  Prof. 
Pierre  Curie,  and  associated  with  him  in  his  re- 
searches. 

Cuvier,  Georges  Baron  de,  iv,  159.  Born  at 
Montbeliard,  France,  1769;  died  at  Paris,  1832. 
French  naturalist.  Educated  at  Stuttgart  for 
the  Calvinistic  ministry,  in  which  faith  he  was 
strictly  brought  up.  His  great  bent  for  natural 
history  caused  his  father  to  abandon  the  plans 
for  his  future.  Went  to  Paris  and  became  Pro- 
fessor of  Natural  History  successively  at  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  Ecole  Centrale  des 
Pantheon  and  College  de  France.  1802,  suc- 
ceeded Mertrud  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  De- 
voted his  life  to  paleontology,  systematic  zo- 
ology, and  comparative  anatomy,  of  which  last 
science  he  was  the  founder. 

Daguerre,  Louis  J.  M.,  iv,  70.  Born  at  Cor- 
meilles,  France,  1789;  died  near  Paris,  1851. 
French  physicist  and  painter.  Began  life  as 
scene  painter  and  evolved  the  Diorama.  To- 
gether with  Nicephore  de  Niepce  in  1829,  he 
began  investigations  in  photography,  and  de- 
vised the  means  of  photographing  on  a  metallic 
[82] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

plate,  from  which  all  modern  photography  has 
developed.  The  daguerreotype  was  announced 
in  1839. 

D'Alembert,  Jean  le  Rond,  iii,  15.  Born  at 
Paris,  1717;  died  at  Paris,  1783.  French  mathe- 
matician and  philosopher.  Educated  at  the  Col- 
lege Mazarin,  and  after  trying  law  and  medicine, 
devoted  himself  to  mathematical  science.  An- 
nounced his  famous  principle  of  the  equality  of 
impressed  and  effective  forces,  1743.  Made  many 
astronomical  and  mathematical  solutions.  1751, 
with  Diderot  undertook  editorship  of  the  Ency- 
clopedic. Withdrew  in  1758.  Had  offers  from 
foreign  rulers  which  he  did  not  accept. 

Daniell,  John  Frederick,  iii,  236.  Born  at  Lon- 
don, 1790;  died  at  London,  1845.  English  physi- 
cist who  gave  special  attention  to  chemistry  and 
meteorology.  Professor  of  Chemistry,  Kings 
College,  London,  1831.  Established,  with  Pro- 
fessor Brande,  the  "Quarterly  Journal  of  Science 
and  Art,"  1816.  Invented  the  hygrometer  about 
1820. 

Dalton,  John,  iv,  40.-  Born  at  Eaglesfield, 
England,  1766;  died  at  Manchester,  1844.  Eng- 
lish chemist.  1793  was  made  Professor  of 
Mathematics  and  Physical  Science  at  Manches- 
ter. He  developed  the  atomic  theory  in  chemis- 
try, which  revolutionized  the  science.  In  phys- 
ics he  experimented  with  the  force  of  steam 
and  electricity  and  expansive  force  of  gases. 
Was  held  in  the  highest  distinction  and  was  the 
recipient  of  many  honors.  Was  color-blind,  and 
gave  scientific  description  of  this  malady,  which 
is  often  called  Daltonism. 

Dana,  James  Dwight,  iii,  162.    Born  at  Utica, 

[83] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

New  York;  died  at  New  Haven,  1895.  Ameri- 
can geologist.  Educated  at  Yale  College.  Ap- 
pointed instructor  U.  S.  Navy,  afterward  Pro- 
fessor Natural  History  at  Yale  (1855-1890). 
Member  Wilkes  exploring  expedition  (1838- 
1842),  when  he  collected  an  immense  amount  of 
zoological  material,  on  which  he  worked  for 
thirteen  years.  Made  valuable  contributions  to 
geology  and  mineralogy,  and  was  honored  by 
many  scientific  societies  in  Europe  and  America. 

Darwin,  Charles  Robert,  iii,  95,  iv,  173.  Born 
at  Shrewsbury,  England,  Feb.  12,  1809;  died  at 
Down,  Kent,  April  19,  1882.  English  naturalist, 
the  greatest  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.  Edu- 
cated Edinburgh  and  Cambridge,  destined  for 
the  church,  but  his  tendencies  were  strongly  to- 
ward natural  history.  Went  as  naturalist  on 
the  "Beagle"  expedition,  1831-36,  and  made 
many  important  contributions  to  zoology  and 
geology.  Announced  his  theory  of  natural  se- 
fection  with  A.  R.  Wallace,  who  had  arrived  at 
the  same  idea  independently,  in  1858.  Published 
"Origin  of  Species"  in  1859.  This  revolutionized 
the  whole  study  of  zoology,  from  the  standpoint 
of  evolution.  Darwin  extended  his  general  the- 
ory to  man,  and  continued  his  studies  tending 
to  the  demonstration  and  confirmation  of  his 
views. 

Darwin,  Erasmus,  iv,  94.  Born  at  Elston,  Eng- 
land, 1731;  died  at  Derby,  1802.  English  physi- 
cian and  naturalist,  grandfather  of  Charles  R. 
In  his  writings  there  is  much  that  his  grandson 
afterward  confirmed.  Lamarck  and  others  who 
helped  develop  the  theory  of  evolution  owe  much 
to  Erasmus  Darwin.  He  wrote  in  prose  and  in 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

didactic  verse.  His  "Zoonomia"  was  so  revolu- 
tionary in  its  ideas,  that  it  is  said  that  Paley 
wrote  his  "Natural  Theology"  to  counteract  its 
influence. 

Davy,  Sir  Humphry,  iv,  48.  Born  at  Pen- 
zance,  1778;  died  at  Geneva,  1829.  English 
physicist.  Was  apprenticed  to  a  surgeon,  1795, 
and  began  to  study  a  wide  range  of  subjects. 
At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  settled  upon  chemis- 
try. Dr.  Beddoes  took  him  as  his  assistant  at 
Bristol,  and  he  soon  discovered  nitrous  oxide 
(laughing  gas).  Was  now  appointed  lecturer  at 
the  Royal  Institution,  London,  and  attracted 
brilliant  audiences.  1802,  made  professor  of 
chemistry  there.  Made  extensive  researches  in 
agricultural  chemistry.  Most  famous  of  all  were 
his  his  electrolytic  experiments,  which  estab- 
lished Lavoisier's  theories  of  the  composition  of 
bases.  Davy  decomposed  potash  and  similar 
substances,  and  demonstrated  the  nature  of 
chlorine  and  hydrochloric  acid.  In  1815  he  in- 
vestigated the  nature  of  fire-damp,  and  invented 
the  safety  lamp.  1820,  was  elected  President  of 
the  Royal  Society.  Later  devised  a  method  of 
preventing  corrosion  of  copper  bottoms  of  sea- 
going vessels.  He  died  a  member  of  nearly  all 
the  scientific  institutions  in  the  world. 

Dawes,  Rev.  W.  R.,  iii,  44.  Born  at  London, 
1799;  died  at  Haddenham,  1868.  English  astron- 
omer, practised  medicine;  also  officiated  for  a 
time  as  minister.  Had  charge  of  several  observ- 
atores  in  England.  Discovered  one  of  the  rings 
of  Saturn  and  many  double  stars. 

De  Bary,  Heinrich  Anton,  iv,  125.  Born  at 
Frankfort-on-Main,  1831 ;  died  at  Strasburg, 

[85] 


KEY  AND   INDEX 

1888.  German  botanist.  Studied  at  Heidelberg, 
Marburg,  and  Berlin.  Professor  at  Freiburg, 
Halle,  and  Strasburg.  He  made  a  special  study 
of  fungi  and  was  editor  of  the  "Botanische  Zei- 
tung"  from  1866  until  his  death. 

De  Forest,  Lee,  viii,  65.  Born  at  Council 
Bluffs,  Iowa,  August  26,  1873.  One  °f  tne  pi°- 
neers  of  the  development  of  wireless  telegraphy 
and  telephony  in  America.  His  system  of  wire- 
less telegraphy  was  used  extensively  in  the  Rus- 
sian-Japanese War. 

Delambre,  Jean  Baptiste  Joseph,  iii,  16.  Born 
at  Amiens,  1749;  died  at  Paris,  1822.  French 
astronomer.  Studied  under  Delisle  and  Lalande. 
Worked  out  tables  of  motion  by  Uranus  after 
its  discovery  by  Herschel  (1781).  He  and  Me- 
chain  superintended  the  measurement  of  the  arc 
of  the  meridian  (1792-99),  for  the  base  of  the 
metric  system.  1807,  was  made  Professor  of 
Astronomy  in  the  College  de  France.  Left  nu- 
merous writings  on  astronomical  subjects. 

Delitzsch,  Frederick,  i,  96.  Born  at  Erlangen, 
1850;  German  assyriologist.  Professor  at  Leip- 
sic  (1877),  Breslau  (1893),  and  Berlin  (1899). 
Has  written  much  on  Assyriology  and  his  works 
have  attained  a  high  degree  of  popularity. 

Democedes,  i,  172.  Born  at  Crotona,  Italy, 
middle  Sixth  Century  B.C.  Greek  physician. 
Went  to  Greece,  where  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Persians  and  carried  to  court,  when  he  be- 
came physician  to  Darius  I.  Afterward  he  re- 
turned to  Greece  and  to  Crotona. 

Democritus,  i,  161.  Born  at  Abdera,  Thrace, 
cir.  470-460  B.C.  Lived  to  a  great  age.  Greek 
philosopher.  Traveled  extensively  and  was  the 
[86] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

learned  thinker  of  his  age.  Originated  the 
atomic  system,  which  assumed  matter  to  be  com- 
posed of  indivisible  atoms  whose  motion  is  de- 
rived entirely  from  themselves.  From  the  com- 
bination made  by  the  motion  the  whole  of  Na- 
ture is  created.  There  is  law  in  Nature,  but  no 
design.  Upon  his  philosophy  epicureanism  was 
founded. 

Descartes,  Rene,  ii,  193.  Born  at  La  Haye, 
1596;  died  at  Stockholm,  1650.  French  philoso- 
pher, the  "father  of  modern  philosophy."  Edu- 
cated by  the  Jesuits,  he  became  dissatisfied  with 
scholasticism,  and  resolved  to  free  his  mind  from 
all  he  had  learned  in  order  to  get  at  truth.  Be- 
came a  soldier  and  finally  settled  in  Holland, 
where  he  wrote  his  books,  taught,  and  became 
involved  in  many  disputes  with  theologians.  The 
principles  of  his  systems  were  published  in  his 
"Discourse  de  la  Methode,"  1637,  in  which  he 
finds  absolute  truth  only  in  those  thoughts  and 
ideas  which  are  as  distinct  and  clear  as  is  his 
self-consciousness.  With  this  system  he  revolu- 
tionized all  methods  of  thought  and  logic.  He 
also  wrote  a  geometry  which  puts  him  among 
the  leading  mathematicians  of  his  age.  In  1649 
he  was  called  to  Stockholm  by  Queen  Christina 
and  shortly  after  died  there. 

Desmoulins,  Louis  Antoine,  iv,  249.  Born  at 
Rouen,  1794;  died  at  Rouen,  1828.  French  nat- 
uralist and  anatomist.  Studied  and  practiced  in 
Paris,  where  he  made  a  special  study  of  anatomy 
and  the  physiology  of  the  nerve  centers.  He  was 
a  severe  critic  of  Cuvier. 

Dewar,  Sir  James,  v,  39.  Born  at  Kincardine- 
on-Forth,  Scotland,  1842.  Scottish  chemist. 

[87] 


KEY   AND  INDEX 

Educated  Edinburgh,  where  for  some  years  he 
was  assistant  to  Lord  Playfair,  Professor  of 
Chemistry.  Afterward  professor  at  Cambridge, 
and  at  Royal  Institution.  Made  special  studies 
of  physiological  action  of  light  and  liquefaction 
of  gases. 

Diodorus  Siculus,  i,  77.  Born  at  Agyrium, 
Sicily,  latter  half  First  Century  B.C.  Greek  his- 
torian. Set  himself  the  task  of  writing  a  great 
history  of  the  world,  in  preparing  for  which  he 
traveled  extensively  in  Europe  and  Asia,  settling 
finally  in  Rome,  where  he  lived  many  years. 
The  preparation  and  writing  of  the  work  took 
not  less  than  thirty  years.  It  covers  about  1,100 
years  down  to  the  Conquest  of  Gaul  by  Caesar. 

Diogenes  Laertius,  i,  121.  Born  at  Laerte, 
Cilicia,  about  beginning  Third  Century  A.D. 
Greek  writer,  whose  principal  work,  "Lives  of 
the  Philosophers,"  in  ten  books,  has  preserved 
to  us  much  knowledge  of  the  history  of  Greek 
philosophy,  although  it  is  largely  biographical, 
and  gives  little  attention  to  the  evolution  of 
philosophic  thought. 

Dohrn,  Dr.  Anton,  v,  121.  Born  at  Stettin, 
1840;  died  in  1908.  German  zoologist.  Studied 
under  Haeckel  at  Jena.  Made  special  study  of 
marine  animals.  1870,  founded  the  zoological 
station  at  Naples,  the  first  and  still  the  most  im- 
portant in  existence. 

Dove,  Heinrich  W.,  iii,  199.  Born  at  Liegnitz, 
1803;  died  at  Berlin,  1879.  German  physicist  and 
meteorologist.  Educated  Breslau  and  Berlin. 
Became  professor  University  of  Berlin,  1829. 
Director  of  the  Royal  Observatory.  Made  spe- 

[88] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

cial  researches  in  climatology,  meteorology,  elec- 
tricity, and  polarized  light. 

Draper,  Daniel,  iii,  67.  Born  at  New  York, 
1841.  American  meteorologist.  Assisted  his 
brother  Henry  in  equipping  his  observatories, 
1869.  Made  director  New  York  Meteorological 
Observatory,  and  designed  many  self-recording 
instruments. 

Draper,  Dr.  Henry,  iii,  67.  Born  in  Virginia, 
1837;  died  in  New  York,  1882.  American  physi- 
cian and  scientist.  Educated  New  York,  Pro- 
fessor of  Medicine,  and  afterward  of  Chemistry 
in  New  York  University.  Also  interested  in 
astronomy,  built  large  telescope  at  Hastings-on- 
Hudson,  and  took  up  celestial  photography  with 
valuable  results. 

Draper,  Dr.  John  W.,  iv,  70.  Born  near  Liver- 
pool, England,  1811;  died  at  Hastings-on-Hud- 
son,  1882.  American  chemist,  physiologist,  and 
writer.  Educated  London  University.  Came 
to  America  1831.  Studied  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. Professor  in  Hampden  Sidney  Coll, 
Va.,  1836.  1839,  came  to  New  York  and  helped 
found  Medical  School,  New  York  University, 
where  he  was  Professor  of  Chemistry,  afterward 
(1850),  of  Physiology.  Made  valuable  contri- 
butions to  physical  chemistry,  especially  in 
chemical  action  of  light,  and  spectrum  analysis, 
and  he  greatly  improved  the  daguerreotype  pro- 
cess. 

Dubois-Reymond,  Emil,  iv,  262.  Born  at  Berlin, 
1818;  died  at  Berlin,  1896.  German  physiologist. 
Educated  at  Berlin  for  the  ministry;  finally 
turned  to  chemistry  and  physics;  later  to  medi- 
cine. 1858,  became  Professor  of  Physiology, 

[89] 


KEY   AND   INDEX 

University  of  Berlin;  1867,  perpetual  secretary 
Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  made  a  special 
study  of  animal  electricity,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion for  all  our  knowledge  of  this  subject.  In- 
vented the  method  for  reading  table  messages 
by  light  deflected  from  a  mirror  attached  to  the 
needle  of  a  galvanometer. 

Dufay,  Charles  Francois  de  Cisternay,  ii,  267. 
Born  at  Paris,  1698;  died  at  Paris,  1739.  French 
chemist.  Destined  for  the  army,  he  paid  more 
attention  to  science,  and  soon  abandoned  mili- 
tary service  to  devote  himself  to  chemistry. 
1733,  was  made  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  and  pursued  anatomy,  botany,  astron- 
omy, mathematics,  and  mechanics  as  well  as 
chemistry.  Noted  for  his  researches  in  the  phe- 
nomena of  phosphorescence  and  the  properties 
of  caustic  soda.  Made  many  surprising  discov- 
eries in  electricity.  Made  many  experiments  in 
the  double  refraction  of  crystals.  Through  his 
efforts  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  was  greatly  im- 
proved and  developed. 

Dujardin,  Felix,  iv,  124.  Born  at  Tours,  1801 ; 
died  at  Rennes,  1860.  French  zoologist.  Studied 
Tours  and  Paris.  Became  Professor  of  Zoology 
in  the  Faculte  de  Rennes.  Made  a  special  study 
of  worms  and  insects. 

Dumas,  Jean  Baptiste,  iv,  128.  Born  at  Alais, 
1800;  died  at  Cannes,  1884.  French  chemist. 
Was  apprenticed  to  an  apothecary  in  Geneva. 
Went  to  Paris  and  studied  chemistry.  Professor 
of  Chemistry  in  the  Athenaeum,  later  at  the  Sor- 
bonne.  Made  a  specialty  of  organic  chemistry; 
and  made  many  valuable  researches  for  the  de- 
termination of  atomic  weights.  Also  occupied 

[90] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

several  political  positions,  Was  Minister  of 
Agriculture  and  Commerce,  1840-1851. 

Edison,  Thomas  A.,  vi,  228;  vii,  182.  Born  at 
Milan,  Ohio,  Feb.  n,  1847.  Inventor  of  the 
phonograph,  the  incandescent  lamp  and  light 
system,  a  system  of  wireless  telegraphy,  and 
more  than  seven  hundred  other  inventions,  or 
improvements  on  mechanical  devices. 

Empedocles,  i,  1 14.  Born  at  Agrigentum,  Sic- 
ily, cir.  490  B.C.;  died  cir.  430  B.C.  Greek 
philosopher  and  physician.  In  his  philosophical 
teachings  he  assumed  four  elements,  earth,  air, 
fire,  and  water,  which  existed  together  immov- 
able in  the  perfect  primitive  world  by  means  of 
an  uniting  cause  "Friendship,"  until  the  external 
separating  cause  "Strife"  entered  into  the  world 
and  acting  on  the  elements  gave  rise  to  all  indi- 
vidual and  contrary  phenomena. 

Erasistratus,  i,  194.  Born  at  Julis,  Ceos,  cir. 
330  B.C.  Greek  physician.  Became  body  physi- 
cian at  Court  of  King  Selectus  Nicator  of  Syria. 
Went  to  live  in  Pamos  and  gave  himself  up  to 
study  of  anatomy.  He  was  the  first  to  perceive 
the  difference  between  the  sensory  and  motor 
nerves,  and  traced  both  to  the  brain.  He  seemed 
to  have  some  idea  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  and  of  the  functions  of  the  veins  and 
arteries. 

Eratosthenes,  i,  225.  Born  at  Cyrene,  cir.  275 
B.C.;  died  at  Alexandria,  195  B.C.  Greek  as- 
tronomer and  geometer,  pupil  of  Lysanias  and 
Callimachus.  Went  to  Athens.  240,  succeeded 
Callimachus  as  head  of  the  Alexandrian  Library. 
Became  blind  and  voluntarily  starved  himself 
to  death.  Attempted  to  measure  the  obliquity 


KEY  AND   INDEX 

of  ecliptic  and  came  within  23°  of  being  correct. 
Computed  the  circumference  of  the  earth  to  be 
250,000  stadia.  His  geography  in  three  books 
is  the  first  scientific  treatise  on  the  subject  ever 
attempted. 

Ericsson,  John,  vi,  134.  Born  at  Wermland, 
Sweden;  died  at  New  York,  March  8,  1889.  Fa- 
mous Swedish-American  engineer  and  inventor. 
He  is  best  known  as  the  inventor  of  the  caloric 
engine  (1833)  and  the  turreted  iron-clad  Moni- 
tor (1862).  He  applied  the  screw  to  steam- 
ships, invented  the  torpedo-boat  destroyer,  and 
a  type  of  solar  engine. 

Erman,  Professor  Adolf,  i,  28.  Born  at  Ber- 
lin, 1854.  German  Egyptologist.  Educated 
Berlin  and  Leipsic.  1885,  director  of  Egyptian 
Department,  Royal  Museum,  Berlin.  1892,  Pro- 
fessor of  Egyptology,  University  of  Berlin.  He 
has  put  the  study  of  the  ancient  Egyptian 
languages  upon  a  scientific  basis  through  a 
thorough  study  of  its  grammar. 

Euclid,  i,  193.  Lived  at  Alexandria  in  Third 
and  Fourth  Centuries  B.C.  Greek  geometer, 
the  most  famous  of  antiquity.  He  worked  out  a 
large  number  of  the  problems  of  elementary 
geometry. 

Euler,  Leonhard,  iii,  17.  Born  at  Basel,  1707; 
died  at  St.  Petersburg,  1783.  Swiss  mathemati- 
cian. Educated  at  Basel,  receiving  master's  de- 
gree at  age  of  sixteen.  Studied  mathematics, 
theology,  Oriental  languages,  and  medicine. 
1727,  went  to  St.  Petersburg  on  invitation  of 
Catherine  I.  Became  Professor  Higher  Mathe- 
matics, 1733.  1740,  called  by  Frederick  the 
Great  to  Berlin  to  take  Chair  of  Mathematics 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

in  Academy  of  Science.  1766,  recalled  to  St. 
Petersburg  and  died  there.  Contributed  volu- 
minously to  the  science  of  mathematics. 

Eustachio,  Bartolommeo,  ii,  165.  Born  at 
San  Severino,  early  in  Sixteenth  Century;  died 
in  1574.  Italian  anatomist.  1562,  became  Pro- 
fessor of  Medicine  in  the  Collegio  della  Sapi- 
enza,  Rome.  Discoverer  of  the  eustachian  tube 
in  the  ear,  and  the  rudimentary  valve  of  the 
heart.  He  first  described  the  thoracic  duct,  and 
perhaps  also  first  noticed  the  stapes.  He  ma- 
terially increased  knowledge  in  regard  to  the 
teeth  and  the  kidneys.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  modern  anatomy. 

Evans,  Oliver,  vi,  113.  Born  at  Newport,  Del., 
1755;  died  at  New  York,  1819.  American  mech- 
anician and  inventor.  Made  valuable  improve- 
ments in  mill  machinery.  Said  to  have  designed 
(1795)  first  high-pressure  engine. 

Falconer,  Hugh,  iii,  99.  Born  at  Forres,  Scot- 
land, 1808;  died  at  London,  1865.  Scottish  bot- 
anist and  paleontologist.  Educated  at  Aberdeen 
and  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh.  Spent  most 
of  his  life  in  India,  where  he  went  in  1829.  On 
his  recommendation  tea  culture  was  introduced 
into  India.  Discovered  the  asafcetida  plant. 
Found  many  important  vertebrate  fossils  in 
Northern  India.  Was  superintendent  of  the 
botanical  garden  at  Saharanpur,  and  in  1847 
was  made  superintendent  of  Calcutta  Botanical 
Garden,  and  professor  of  botany  in  the  medical 
college  there. 

Fallopius,  Gabriello,  ii,  166.  Born  at  Moderna, 
Italy,  1523;  died  at  Padua,  Oct.  9,  1562.  Cele- 
brated Italian  anatomist.  Professor  of  anatomy 

[93] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

at  Ferrara,  Pisa  and  Padua.  Made  several  im- 
portant discoveries  in  the  anatomy  of  the  ear, 
the  fallopian  tube  being  named  for  him.  In 
the  controversy  over  the  question  as  to  whether 
there  are  valves  in  the  veins,  Fallopius  declared 
that  he  was  unable  to  find  such  valves.  The 
fact  of  their  existence  was  established  by  his 
contemporaries. 

Faraday,  Michael,  iii,  241.  Born  near  Lon- 
don, 1791 ;  died  at  Hampton  Court,  1867.  Eng- 
lish chemist  and  physicist.  Apprenticed  to  a 
bookbinder,  he  gave  all  his  spare  time  to 
science,  especially  experiments  in  electricity. 
Davy  became  interested  in  him  and  took  him  as 
assistant.  He  became  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
experimentalists  science  has  ever  known.  Liqui- 
fied certain  gases  by  pressure.  Discovered  the 
revolution  of  a  magnetic  needle  due  to  an  elec- 
tric current.  Discovered  action  of  currents  on 
each  other  and  laid  the  foundation  of  magneto 
electricity.  Valuable  researches  in  electrolysis. 
Discovered  benzol,  the  basis  of  aniline  dyes. 

Fechner,  Gustav,  iv,  263.  Born  at  Gross-Sahr- 
chen,  1801;  died  at  Leipsic,  1887.  German  physi- 
cist and  philosopher.  He  founded  modern  psy- 
chology, and  psycho-physics.  Educated,  Leip- 
sic for  a  physician,  but  turned  to  physics.  Re- 
searches in  electricity  and  physiological  optics. 
After  1845  devoted  himself  to^philosophy.  Ad- 
vocated mentality  of  a  low  order  in  the  plant 
world.  Worked  out  a  comprehensive  system  of 
metaphysics.  In  his  most  famous  work,  "Psy- 
chophysik,"  he  developed  the  psychophysical 
measurement  methods  which  are  still  in  use 
to-day. 

[94] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

Ferrel,  Professor  William,  iii,  200.  Born  in 
Pennsylvania,  1817;  died  at  Maywood,  Kansas, 
1891.  American  meteorologist.  Made  impor- 
tant contributions  to  the  science.  Invented  the 
maxima-  and  minima-tide-predicting  machine, 
which  has  been  in  use  for  many  years  in  the 
Government  Coast  Surveys. 

Ferrier,  Dr.  David,  iv,  273.  Born  at  Aberdeen, 
1843.  Scottish  neurologist.  Educated,  Scotland 
and  at  Heidelberg.  1872,  Professor  of  Neuro- 
pathology,  Kings  College,  London.  Has  great- 
ly increased  our  knowledge  of  the  functions  and 
diseases  of  the  brain. 

Field,  Cyrus  W.,  viii,  30.  Born  at  Stock- 
bridge,  Mass.,  Nov.  30,  1819;  died  at  New  York, 
July  12,  1892.  He  founded  the  Atlantic  Tele- 
graph Company  which  laid  the  first  successful 
Transatlantic  cable. 

Fitch,  John,  vii,  63.  Born  at  Windsor,  Conn., 
Jan.  21,  1743;  died  (committed  suicide),  Bards- 
town,  Ky.,  July  2,  1798.  American  inventor.  He 
built  various  types  of  steamboats  of  his  own 
inventing,  the  first  in  1787.  These  boats  were 
of  no  practical  value,  but  marked  steps  in  the 
advancement  toward  Fulton's  crowning  achieve- 
ment. 

Fizeau,  Hippolyto  Louis,  viii,  228.  Born  at 
Paris,  1819;  died  at  Nanteuil,  1896.  French 
physicist.  1839,  began  researches  to  make 
daguerreotypes  permanent.  Devised  apparatus 
for  measuring  velocity  of  light  (1856),  and  won 
prize  of  10,000  francs. 

Flourens,  Marie  Jean  Pierre,  iv,  270.  Born  at 
Maureilhan,  Herault,  1794;  died  at  Montgeron, 
1867.  French  physiologist.  Educated  at  Mont- 

[951 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

pellier.  Assistant  and  successor  to  Cuvier,  as 
Professor  of  Natural  History  in  the  Jardin  du 
Roi.  1835,  became  professor  in  the  College  de 
France.  A  voluminous  writer  on  comparative 
anatomy  and  physiology,  natural  history,  etc. 
Wrote  a  famous  work  on  the  formation  of  the 
bones.  Made  a  peer  by  Louis  Philippe,  1846. 

Forbes,  James  David,  iii,  275.  Born  at  Edin- 
burgh, 1809;  died  at  Clifton,  England,  1868. 
Scottish  physicist  and  geologist.  Educated, 
Edinburgh,  for  the  law,  but  his  natural  bent  led 
him  to  physics.  1833,  became  Professor  of 
Physics,  Edinburgh  University.  Made  special 
study  of  thermal  radiations  which  resulted  in 
the  discovery  of  the  polarization  of  heat.  Made 
important  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
origin  and  movement  of  glaciers. 

Foster,  Sir  Michael,  v,  17.  Born  at  Hunting- 
ton,  Eng.,  1836.  English  physiologist.  Educated 
University  College,  London.  Taught  there  and 
at  Cambridge.  Became  Professor  of  Physiol- 
ogy, Cambridge  University,  1883.  1900,  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  for  London  University. 

Foucault,  Jean  Bernard.  Born  at  Paris,  1819; 
died  at  Paris,  1868.  French  physicist.  Edu- 
cated for  the  medical  profession.  1854,  ap- 
pointed Physicist,  Paris  Observatory.  First 
direct  measurements  of  velocity  of  light  were 
due  to  him  and  Fizeau.  Showed  that  velocity  of 
light  in  air  was  greater  than  in  water.  Invented 
polarizing  prism,  and  an  apparatus  for  regula- 
ting electric  light.  Made  many  researches  in  elec- 
tricity. The  Foucault  currents  were  named 
after  him. 

Fourneyron,    Benoit,    vi,    72.      Born    at    St. 

[96] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

Etienne,  France,  Oct.  31,  1802;  died  at  Paris, 
July,  1867.  French  engineer  who  improved  the 
construction  of  turbine  water-wheels. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  ii,  286.  Born  at  Boston, 
1706;  died  at  Philadelphia,  1790.  American 
scientist  and  statesman.  Apprenticed  to  a  printer 
he  soon  went  to  Philadelphia  and  began  a  life 
of  great  public  activity,  rendering  great  service 
to  his  country  in  many  ways.  He  held  political 
offices,  spent  much  time  in  Europe  on  behalf  of 
the  colonies,  and  later  as  an  emissary  of  the 
new  American  nation  to  obtain  help  from 
France.  In  1731  he  started  the  Philidelphia  Li- 
brary. In  1744,  founded  the  American  Philo- 
sophic Society.  Invented  the  Franklin  stove, 
made  many  civic  improvements,  and  made  valu- 
.able  investigations  in  electricity,  demonstrating 
the  electrical  nature  of  lightning  (1752). 

Frauenhofer,  Joseph  von,  iii,  60..  Born  at 
Straubing,  1787;  died  at  Munich,  1826.  German 
physicist.  Began  life  as  a  working  optician  and 
became  head  of  a  firm  of  opticians.  Invented 
means  of  obtaining  large  piece  of  optical  glass 
free  from  imperfections  for  lenses  and  prisms. 
Many  inventions  to  perfect  making  of  lenses, 
prisms,  etc.  Discovered  the  dark  lines  in  the 
spectrum  called  by  his  name.  Measured  the 
wave  lengths  of  sodium  light  by  means  of  dif- 
fraction grating. 

Fresnel,  Augustin  Jean,  iii,  226.  Born  at  Brog- 
lie,  1788;  died  near  Paris,  1827.  French  physi- 
cist. Educated  Caen  and  Paris.  Became  Gov- 
ernment engineer.  Independently  of  Young  he 
demonstrated  the  falsity  of  the  Newtonian  the- 
ory of  light,  and  advocated  the  undulatory  the- 

[97] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

ory,  which  with  Arago's  assistance  he  afterward 
proved.  Made  investigations  in  polarized  light, 
and  applied  improved  and  scientific  methods  to 
the  making  of  lighthouse  lenses. 

Fulton,  Robert,  vii,  70;  vii,  98.  Born  at  Little 
Britain,  Pa.,  1765;  died  at  New  York,  Feb.  24, 
1815.  American  inventor,  whose  invention  of 
the  steamer  "Clermont"  opened  the  era  of  steam 
navigation.  He  began  life  as  a  portrait-  and 
landscape-painter,  but  soon  abandoned  art  to  de- 
vote his  time  to  engineering.  While  residing  in 
France  in  the  closing  years  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  he  invented  torpedo  boats  and  subma- 
rine boats.  There,  also,  he  built  a  steamboat 
which  made  a  successful  trip  on  the  Seine  in 
1803. 

Galen  (Claudius  Galenus),  i,  272.  Born  in 
Pergamum,  130;  died  in  Sicily,  201.  Greek  phys- 
ician. Studied  in  Pergamum,  Smyrna,  Corinth 
and  Alexandria.  Went  to  Rome,  where  he  at- 
tended the  Emperor.  Wrote  many  treatises  on 
all  branches  of  medicine,  of  which  those  on  anat- 
omy and  physiology  are  most  valuable.  He 
bases  his  practice  on  two  principles:  First,  that 
disease  must  be  overcome  by  something  contrary 
to  disease  itself.  Second,  that  nature  is  preserved 
by  that  which  has  relation  to  nature. 

Galilei,  Galileo,  ii,  76.  Born  at  Pisa,  Feb.  14, 
1564;  died  at  Arcetri,  Jan.  8,  1642.  Famous  Ital- 
ian physicist  and  astronomer.  Discovered  the 
ischronism  of  the  pendulum  in  1583,  and  the 
hydrostatic  balance  in  1586.  Constructed  a  ther- 
mometer in  1597.  Professor  of  mathematics  at 
Padua5>  1592  to  1610.  While  at  Padua  he  made 
many  inventions,  the  most  important  being  the 

[98] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

refracting  telescope,  with  which  he  discovered 
the  satellites  of  Jupiter  (1610),  phases  of  Venus, 
sun-spots,  etc.  In  his  work  on  the  sun-spots  he 
advocated  the  Copernican  theory,  and  was  de- 
nounced as  a  heretic.  Was  tried  and  compelled 
to  recant  his  views.  Imprisoned,  but  soon  re- 
leased and  retired  to  Florence. 

Gall,  Franz  Joseph,  iv,  248.  Born  at  Tiefen- 
bronn,  1758;  died  at  Montrouge,  1828.  German 
physician  and  phrenologist.  Studied  Strasburg 
and  Vienna,  practiced  in  latter  city.  1796,  began 
to  lecture  on  structure  and  function  of  brain, 
and  for  his  views  the  Austrian  Government 
compelled  him  to  leave  Vienna,  1802.  Settled 
finally  in  Paris,  practiced  and  lectured.  Here 
he  continued  to  lay  the  foundations  of  phrenol- 
ogy, in  spite  of  charges  of  materialism  and  fa- 
talism constantly  brought  against  his  system. 

Galton,  Francis.  Born  at  Birmingham,  1822. 
English  anthropologist  and  meteorologist.  Ed- 
ucated Birmingham,  London,  and  Cambridge. 
1850,  started  to  explore  in  Africa  and  discovered 
the  Orampo  race.  Promulgated  the  theory  of 
anti-cyclones  (1863),  which  is  the  foundation  of 
weather  forecasts.  Of  late  years  his  studies 
have  been  mostly  in  anthropology  and  biology. 
His  views  on  heredity  have  been  widely  dis- 
cussed. He  was  the  first  to  apply  statistics  to 
anthropology  and  invented  the  means  of  taking 
composite  photographs.  Has  devised  various 
measuring  apparatuses  for  purposes  of  psychol- 
ogy- 

Galvani,  Luigi,  iii,  229.  Born  at  Bologna, 
1737;  died  at  Bologna,  1798.  Italian  physician 
and  anatomist.  Educated  for  the  priesthood  but 

[99] 


KEY  AND   INDEX 

turned  to  medicine.  Was  Professor  of  Anatomy 
at  Bologna.  By  an  accident  he  discovered  the 
existence  of  the  galvanic  current,  which  led  to 
the  invention  of  the  voltaic  cell  and  all  that  has 
developed  from  it. 

Gauss,  Karl  Friedrich.  Born  at  Brunswick, 
1777;  died  at  Gottingen,  1855.  German  mathe- 
matician, one  of  the  most  brilliant  of  modern 
times.  Born  in  poverty,  but  was  educated  at 
Gottingen.  Invented  a  method  of  calculating 
positions  of  heavenly  bodies  in  order  to  redis- 
cover the  lost  planet  Ceres.  Devoted  latter  part 
of  life  to  geodesy  and  the  mathematical  theory 
of  electricity.  Developed  the  theory  of  least 
squares. 

Gay-Lussac,  Joseph  Louis,  iv,  41.  Born  at 
Saint-Leonard  le  Noblat,  1778;  died  at  Paris, 
1850.  French  chemist  and  physicist.  Studied  at 
Paris.  Became  assistant  to  Berthollet  at  the 
Government  chemical  works.  Made  balloon  as- 
cent to  ascertain  whether  magnetic  force  existed 
above  the  earth.  With  Humboldt  he  announced 
the  exact  composition  of  water  (1804),  which 
led  to  the  discovery  by  Gay-Lussac  in  1808  of 
the  important  law  of  volumes.  1809,  became 
Professor  of  Chemistry  at  £cole  Polytechnique. 
Discovered  a  better  way  than  electrolysis  for 
producing  potassium. 

Geber,  ii,  20.  Died  about  1776.  An  Arabian 
chemist.  He  discovered  sulphuric,  nitric,  and  ni- 
tromuriatic  acids,  thus  greatly  increasing  the 
possibilities  of  chemical  experiment.  He  is  cred- 
ited with  writing  about  five  hundred  works.  Of 
these  "Testamentum,"  "De  Inventions  Vintatis," 
"Liber  Fornacum,"  "Summa  Perfectionis,"  "De 
[TOO] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

Investigatione  Perfectionis,"  and  "Liber  Investi- 
gationis,"  have  appeared  in  print.  7 

Gilbert,  William,  ii,  in.  Born  at  Colchester, 
England,  1540;  died  Nov.  30,  1603.  English 
physician  and  natural  philosopher.  Physician  in 
ordinary  to  Queen  Elizabeth  and  James  I. 
President  of  the  College  of  Physicians  in  1600. 
With  the  doubtful  exception  of  Bacon,  Gilbert 
was  the  most  distinguished  man  of  science  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  His  studies  of 
electricity  and  magnetism  led  Priestly  to  call 
him  "the  father  of  modern  electricity."  He  was 
the  first  to  discover  that  the  earth  is  a  magnet, 
and  explained  the  dipping  of  the  needle  by  the 
magnetic  poles.  He  also  gave  the  name  of 
"pole"  to  the  extremities  of  the  magnetic  nee- 
dle, and  was  first  to  make  use  of  -the  terms  "elec- 
tric force"  and  "electric  attractions."  He  was 
first  to  distinguish  between  magnetism  and  elec- 
tricity, and  made  the  first  electrical  instrument 
ever  constructed.  He  made  also  the  first  elec- 
trical indicating  device.  The  method  of  magne- 
tising iron  first  introduced  by  him  is  in  common 
use  to-day. 

Gill,  Sir  David,  iii,  67.  Born  at  Aberdeen, 
Scotland,  June  12,  1843.  Scottish  astronomer 
and  Astronomer  Royal  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  from  1879.  He  made  five  photographs  of 
a  comet,  and  the  flecks  of  starlight  on  his  plates 
first  suggested  the  possibilities  of  this  method 
in  charting  the  heavens.  His  observations  of 
the  transit  of  Venus  in  1882  were  invaluable  in 
the  determination  of  the  distance  of  the  sun 
from  the  earth. 

Gladstone,  Professor  J.  H.,  iv,  68.     Born  at 


KEY  AND   INDEX 

London,  1827;  died  October,  1902.  English 
scientist.  Professor  of  Chemistry  at  the  Royal 
Institution,  1874-77.  Published  "Life  of  Michael 
Faraday,"  and  "Chemistry  of  Secondary  Bat- 
teries." 

Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang  von,  iv,  140.  Born 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Aug.  28,  1749;  died 
at  Weimar,  March  22,  1832.  German  poet,  dra- 
matist, and  scientist.  In  1790  published  the 
"Metamorphoses  of  Plants,"  in  which  he  ad- 
vanced the  novel  doctrine  that  all  parts  of  the 
flower  are  modified  or  metamorphosed  leaves.  A 
little  later  he  advanced  the  doctrine  that  the  ver- 
tebrate skull  is  essentially  a  modified  and  de- 
veloped vertebra.  This  doctrine  of  metamorpho- 
sis of  parts  soon  came  to  be  regarded  as  of 
fundamental  importance. 

Goodyear,  Charles,  ix,  113.  Born  at  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  Dec.  29,  1800;  died  at  New  York, 
July  i,  1860.  American  manufacturer.  He  dis- 
covered the  process  of  treating  india-rubber 
known  as  "vulcanization,"  a  process  upon  which 
the  usefulness  of  rubber  is  largely  dependent. 
He  also  invented  a  machine  for  the  sewing  of 
soles,  known  as  a  "turn-sole  machine,"  which 
was  of  great  commercial  importance. 

Gordon,  Andrew,  ii,  279.  Born  at  Coforach, 
Forfarshire,  June  15,  1712;  died  Aug.  22,  1751. 
A  Scotch  Benedictine  monk  and  physicist,  noted 
for  his  experiments  in  frictional  electricity.  He 
was  first  to  invent  an  electric  bell  which  would 
ring  automatically,  and  a  "motor,"  in  the  form 
of  a  wheel  which  was  revolved  by  the  action  of 
electricity.  He  demonstrated  the  force  of  the 
electric  current  by  killing  birds  and  small  ani- 

[102] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

mals  at  a  distance  of  two  hundred  ells,  the  cur- 
rent being  conveyed  by  small  wires. 

Gray,  Asa,  iv,  175.  Born  at  Paris,  New  York, 
Nov.  18,  1810;  died  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Jan.  30, 
1888.  American  botanist.  Professor  of  Natural 
History  at  Harvard,  1842-88.  Championed  Dar- 
win's theory  of  evolution,  and  wrote  "Darwin- 
iana"  in  1876.  Some  of  his  best-known  works 
are,  "Elements  of  Botany,"  "Flora  of  North 
America,"  "How  Plants  Grow,"  "Field,  Forest 
and  Garden  Botany,"  and  "Manual  of  Botany  of 
the  United  States." 

Gray,  Prof.  Elisha,  vii,  85;  viii,  26.  Born  at 
Barnesville,  Ohio,  Aug.  3,  1835 ;  died  at  Newton- 
ville,  Mass.,  Jan.  20,  1901.  American  inventor. 
Remembered  particularly  for  his  inventions  rela- 
ting to  telegraphy  and  the  telephone.  He  filed 
specifications  of  a  telephone  in  the  United  States 
Patent  Office  only  a  few  hours  later  than  Dr. 
Graham  Bell,  whose  invention  opened  the  era  of 
telephonic  communication. 

Gray,  Stephen,  ii,  262.  Died  February  25, 
1736.  A  pensioner  of  the  Charter  House  in  Lon- 
don. In  his  experiments  with  electricity  he  dis- 
covered two  of  the  most  important  properties  of 
electricity — that  it  can  be  conducted  and  insu- 
lated. 

Guericke,  Otto  von,  ii,  213.  Born  at  Magde- 
burg, Prussia,  Nov.  20,  1602;  died  at  Hamburg, 
May  n,  1686.  German  natural  philosopher.  He 
invented  the  first  electrical  machine,  and  dis- 
covered electrical  attraction  and  repulsion.  He 
invented  the  air  pump  and  the  air  balance,  and 
demonstrated  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 


KEY  AND   INDEX 

with  the  "Magdeburg  hemispheres,"  see  Vol.  ii, 

211. 

Guy  of  Chaulic,  ii,  38.  Born  about  1300.  Fa- 
mous French  surgeon.  Introduced  the  treat- 
ment for  broken  limbs  by  suspension  in  a  cradle, 
and  the  method  of  making  "traction"  to  prevent 
deformity  by  shortening  of  the  member — a 
method  still  in  use.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
physicians  to  advocate  the  use  of  glasses  in  cer- 
tain eye  disorders. 

Haeckel,  Ernst  Heinrich,  v,  144.  Born  at 
Potsdam,  Prussia,  Feb.  16,  1834.  Distinguished 
German  naturalist.  One  of  the  leading  advo- 
cates of  the  biological  theory  of  evolution.  For 
a  time  he  practiced  medicine  in  Berlin,  but  in 
1861  he  left  the  field  of  medicine  to  become  a 
privat-docent  in  Jena.  In  1865  he  was  appointed 
to  a  chair  of  zoology  which  was  specially  estab- 
lished for  him.  He  has  written  many  mono- 
graphs of  systematic  and  descriptive  nature, 
these  works  alone  "constituting  a  good  life's 
work."  In  addition  he  has  written  several  other 
works,  some  of  them  of  a  popular  nature.  In 
1866  he  published  his  "General  Morphology," 
and  about  two  years  later  he  rewrote  the  same 
work  in  a  more  popular  style,  published  as  the 
"Natural  History  of  Creation/'  In  his  book 
"Die  Welt-rathsel,"  published  in  English  as 
"The  Riddle  of  the  Universe,"  he  applies  the 
doctrine  of  evolution  to  the  problems  of  philoso- 
phy and  religion  carried  to  its  logical  conclusion. 

Hahnemann,  Christian  Samuel  Friedrich  von, 
iv,  189.  Born  at  Meissen,  Saxony,  April  10, 
1755;  died  at  Paris,  July  2,  1843.  German  physi- 
cian, founder  of  homeopathy.  His  new  system 
[104] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

of  medicine  was  expounded  about  1796,  and  later 
elaborated  in  his  work  "Organon  der  Rationellen 
Heilkunde." 

Hales,  Stephen,  ii,  298.  Born  at  Bekes- 
bourne,  Kent,  Sept.  7,  1677;  died  at  Tel- 
dington,  near  London,  Jan.  4,  1761.  English 
clergyman,  inventor,  and  physiologist.  His  most 
important  invention  was  a  "ventilator"  for  in- 
troducing fresh  air  into  jails,  mines,  ships'  holds, 
etc.  Only  four  deaths  in  four  years  occurred  in 
the  Savoy  Prison  after  this  ventilator  was  intro- 
duced there,  whereas  the  mortality  previous  to 
that  time  had  been  from  50  to  100  per  annum. 
Hales'  work,  "Vegetable  Statics"  (1727),  on  the 
subject  of  vegetable  physiology  was  the  first  im- 
portant publication  on  the  subject. 

Hall,  Marshall,  M.D.,  F.R.S.L.,  iv,  251.  Born 
at  Basford,  Notts,  Feb.  18,  1790;  died  at 
Brighton,  England,  Aug.  n,  1857.  English 
physician,  the  discoverer  of  the  phenomena 
known  as  reflex  action.  This  discovery  marked 
an  epoch  in  physiology.  The  most  popular  of 
Hall's  discoveries  was  his  "ready  method"  for 
resuscitating  in  drowning,  by  which  innumera- 
ble lives  have  been  saved. 

Haller,  Albrecht  von,  iv,  73.  Born  at  Bern, 
Switzerland,  Oct.  16,  1708;  died  at  Bern,  Dec. 
X7»  T777-  Anatomist,  physiologist,  botanist,  and 
poet.  A  sickly,  but  precocious  child,  he  read 
and  expounded  the  Bible  at  the  age  of  four;  and 
before  ten  years  of  age  had  "sketched  a  Chaldee 
grammar,  prepared  a  Greek  and  a  Hebrew  vo- 
cabulary, and  compiled  a  collection  of  two  thou- 
sand biographies  of  famous  men  and  women." 
His  greatest  contribution  to  medicine  was  his 


KEY  AND   INDEX 

"doctrine  of  irritability,"  for  which  he  has  been 
called  "the  father  of  modern  nervous  physiol- 
ogy-" 

Halley,  Edmund,  iii,  7.  Born  at  Haggerston, 
England,  Oct.  29,  1659;  died  at  Greenwich, 
Kent,  1742.  English  astronomer  and  mathema- 
tician. Before  he  was  nineteen  he  had  published 
a  work  which  supplied  a  defect  in  Kepler's  the- 
ory of  planetary  motion.  At  the  age  of  twenty 
he  established  the  certainty  of  the  motion  of  the 
sun  round  its  own  axis  by  his  observation  of  a 
sun  spot.  In  1720  he  was  appointed  Astronomer 
Royal  at  Greenwich.  His  popular  fame  rests  on 
his  observation  of  the  comet  named  for  him,  and 
whose  orbit  is  of  such  size  that  the  comet  makes 
its  appearance  only  once  in  every  76  or  77  years. 
In  all  this  comet  has  appeared  26  times  during 
the  historic  period  of  which  we  have  any  record. 
Its  first  appearance  was  in  the  year  n  B.C.,  its 
last  in  1910. 

Hargreaves,  James,  ix,  16.  Born  at  Black- 
burn, Lancashire,  England;  died  at  Nottingham, 
April,  1778.  English  mechanic  and  inventor. 
His  invention  of  the  spinning-jenny,  patented  in 
1770,  revolutionized  the  spinning  industry. 

Harrison,  John,  vii,  25.  Born  at  Yorkshire, 
England,  March  31,  1698;  died  at  London, 
March  24,  1776.  English  mechanician  and  in- 
ventor. He  invented  the  compensating  pendu- 
lum, by  the  use  of  which  clocks  could  be  made 
accurate  time-keepers  regardless  of  surrounding 
temperature.  He  also  invented  the  chronome- 
ter, and  was  finally  awarded  the  prize  of  twenty 
thousand  pounds  offered  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment for  such  a  timepiece. 

[106] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

Harvey,  William,  ii,  169.  Born  at  Folkestone, 
England,  April,  1578;  died  at  Hempstead,  Essex, 
June  3,  1657.  An  English  physician,  famous  as 
the  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
His  experiments  to  demonstrate  his  theory  were 
made  upon  serpents,  and  his  demonstrations 
were  such  that  his  conclusions  were  accepted  al- 
most immediately  by  scientists  all  over  the  civil- 
ized world. 

Hauksbee,  Francis,  ii,  259.  English  physicist, 
one  of  the  early  experimenters  with  electricity. 
Through  experiments  with  a  whirling  globe 
from  which  the  air  had  been  exhausted,  and 
with  a  barometer  and  rubbed  glass  rods  he 
produced  a  glow  which  he  found  to  be  electrical. 
He  also  discovered  the  important  property  of 
electricity  known  as  "induction"  by  revolving 
two  cylinders  placed  about  an  inch  apart. 

Helmholtz,  Hermann  Ludwig  Ferdinand  von, 
iii,  280.  Born  at  Potsdam,  Aug.  31,  1821;  died 
at  Berlin,  Sept.  8,  1894.  German  physiologist 
and  physicist.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  was 
military  physician  at  Potsdam.  Later  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Anatomy  and  Physiology  at  Bonn, 
Professor  of  Physiology  at  Heidelberg,  and  Pro- 
fessor of  Physics  at  Berlin.  In  1851  he  invented 
the  ophthalmoscope — an  instrument  invaluable 
to  oculists  for  examining  the  internal  structures 
of  the  eye.  He  formulated  an  electro-magnetic 
theory  of  light,  which  was  shown  to  be  correct 
by  the  experiments  and  discoveries  of  his  pupil, 
Heinrich  Hertz. 

Henderson,  Thomas,  iii,  61.  Astronomer 
Royal  of  Scotland.  He  was  one  of  the  first  as- 
tronomers to  detect  and  measure  the  parallax  of 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

a  star,  in  point  of  time  his  observations  prece- 
ding Bessel's,  although  Bessel's  were  much  more 
numerous.  These  observations  solved  the  prob- 
lem of  star  distance. 

Henry,  Joseph,  iii,  239;  vi,  175.  Born  at  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  Dec.  17,  1797;  died  at  Washington, 
D.C.,  May  13,  1878.  An  American  physicist, 
and  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
Noted  for  his  experiments  in  electro-magnetism. 
He  constructed  electro-magnets  of  greater  power 
than  any  hitherto  known,  and  was  the  first  to 
adopt  insulated  or  silk-covered  wire  for  the  mag- 
netic coil.  He  invented  a  magnetic  bell  for  sig- 
naling, which  is  considered  the  first  example  of 
a  true  magnetic  telegraph.  Foreign  estimates 
place  him  in  the  foremost  rank  of  American 
physicists  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

Heraclides,  i,  196.  A  Greek  physician,  who 
decried  the  study  of  anatomy,  depending  en- 
tirely upon  the  use  of  drugs  for  curing  diseases. 
He  is  said  to  be  the  first  physician  to  use  opium 
in  painful  affections. 

Hero,  i,  242.  Alexandrian  mathematician  of 
the  Third  Century,  B.C.  He  wrote  several 
works,  only  one  of  which,  "Pneumatics,"  has 
been  preserved.  In  his  studies  of  gas,  liquids 
and  solids,  he  shows  a  fairly  clear  conception  of 
the  "atomic"  nature  of  matter.  He  describes 
also  the  mechanism  of  various  mechanical  toys 
and  devices,  among  them  a  ball  rotated  by  the 
action  of  steam. 

Herodotus,  i,  103.  Born  at  Halicarnassus, 
Asia  Minor,  about  484  B.C.;  died  at  Thurii, 
Italy,  about  424  B.C.  Celebrated  Greek  histo- 
rian, called  "the  Father  of  History."  In  his 

[108] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

writings  he  tells  of  an  eclipse  which  occurred 
in  585  B.C.  (modern  astronomers  reckon  the 
exact  date  to  be  May  25th),  which  had  been 
foretold  by  Thales.  This  is  the  first  recorded  in- 
stance of  a  predicted  eclipse. 

Herophilus,  i,  194.  Lived  about  300  B.C. 
Greek  anatomist  and  physician.  With  Erasis- 
tratus,  the  earliest  scientific  investigator  of  the 
mechanism  of  the  human  body.  Discovered  that 
the  nerve  trunks  have  their  origin  in  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord,  and  are  of  two  different  kinds, 
motor  and  sensory.  Also  made  fairly  accurate 
study  of  the  anatomy  of  the  eye. 

Herschel,  Sir  John,  iii,  58;  iv,  in.  Born  near 
Windsor,  March  7,  1792;  died  at  Collingwood, 
Kent,  May  II,  1871.  English  astronomer;  son 
of  Sir  William  Herschel.  Made  important  ob- 
servations of  double  stars.  In  2,299  telescopic 
fields  he  counted  68,948  stars.  In  his  studies  of 
the  milky  way  he  estimated  that  the  stars  visible 
in  a  reflecting  telescope  of  18  inches  aperture 
amounted  to  over  five  million. 

Herschel,  Sir  William,  iii,  20.  Born  at  Han- 
over, Prussia,  Nov.  15,  1738;  died  at  Slough, 
England,  Aug.  25,  1822.  Celebrated  English  as- 
tronomer of  German  birth.  Deserted  from  Ger- 
man army  and  went  to  England  in  1757.  Gained 
considerable  success  as  violinist,  organist,  and 
teacher  of  music.  Was  self-instructed  in  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy,  and  constructed  his  own 
telescopes.  He  discovered  the  planet  Uranus  in 
1781,  and  the  following  year  was  made  Court 
astronomer.  With  his  forty-foot  reflecting 
telescope  he  determined  definitely  that  the  stars 
are  suns,  not  merely  "points  of  light"  as  had 

[109] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

been  believed  by  many,  even  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  and  made  pioneer  observations  in  near- 
ly every  branch  of  astronomy. 

Hertz,  Heinrich  Rudolf,  iii,  247.  Born  at  Ham- 
burg, Germany,  Feb.  22,  1857;  died  at  Bonn, 
Jan.  i,  1894.  German  physicist.  In  1883  ne  be- 
gan studies  in  Maxwell's  electro-magnetic  the- 
ory, and  finally  established  the  fact  that  "ordi- 
nary light  consists  of  electrical  vibrations  in  an 
all-pervading  ether,  which  possesses  the  proper- 
ties of  an  insulator  and  of  a  magnetic  medium.'' 
The  results  of  his  observations  have  been  turned 
to  practical  account  in  the  wireless  telegraph  and 
telephone  systems  of  the  present  time. 

Hevelius,  Johannes,  iii,  3.  Born  at  Dantzic, 
Prussia,  Jan.  28,  1611;  died  at  Dantzic,  Jan.  28, 
1687.  A  Polish  astronomer.  His  fame  as  an 
astronomer  rests  largely  on  his  accurate  descrip- 
tion of  the  face  and  the  spots  of  the  moon.  He 
was  a  friend  and  coworker  of  Edmund  Halley, 
the  English  astronomer. 

Hewitt,  Peter  Cooper,  vi,  236.  Born  at  New 
York.  American  electrician.  Inventor  of  the 
mercury-vapor  electric  light,  in  which  mercury 
vapor  takes  the  place  of  the  carbon  or  metal  fila- 
ment of  the  incandescent  lamp. 

Hildanes,  Fabricius,  ii,  183.  Born  in  1560; 
died  in  1639.  A  German  physician  and  surgeon. 
He  invented  many  useful  surgical  instruments, 
several  of  them  for  locating  and  removing  bul- 
lets. Contrary  to  the  teachings  of  his  time  he 
was  an  ardent  advocate  of  the  study  of  anato- 
my. He  was  first  to  use  a  magnet  for  removing 
particles  of  metal  from  the  eye. 

Hinrichs,  Professor  Gustav,  iv,  67.  An  Amer- 
[no] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

ican  chemist.  One  of  the  first  to  conceive  the 
so-called  "law  of  octaves,"  which  later  was  ex- 
plicated fully  by  Mendeleeff  under  the  title  of 
"the  periodic  law." 

Hipparchus,  i,  233.  Born  at  Nicaea,  in  Bithy- 
nia,  160  B.C.  A  Greek  astronomer  called  "the 
lover  of  truth,"  one  of  the  founders  of  scientific 
astronomy.  He  discovered  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  some  of  the  inequalities  of  the  moon's 
motion,  and  the  eccentricity  of  the  solar  orbit. 

Hippocrates,  i,  170.  Born  at  Island  of  Cos, 
about  460  B.C. ;  died  at  Larissa,  Thessaly,  about 
377  B.C.  A  Greek  physician,  termed  the  "Father 
of  Medicine."  His  most  revolutionary  step  was 
divorcing  the  supernatural  from  the  natural,  and 
establishing  the  fact  that  disease  is  due  to  nat- 
ural causes.  This  led  to  closer  and  systematic 
observation  of  cases,  and  written  observations — 
"clinical  histories"  as  they  are  called.  Some  of 
the  surgical  procedures  described  by  him  are 
followed,  with  slight  modifications,  by  modern 
surgeons. 

Hoffman,  Friedrich,  iv,  184.  Born  at  Halle, 
Prussia,  Feb.  19,  1660;  died  at  Halle,  Nov.  12, 
1742.  A  celebrated  German  physician.  He  ar- 
ranged the  doctrines  of  Boerhaave  into  a  "sys- 
tem" which  considered  force  inherent  in  matter, 
expressed  as  mechanical  movements,  and  de- 
termined by  mass,  number,  and  weight.  He  in- 
troduced several  new  remedies,  one  of  them 
"Hoffman's  anodyne"  (spirits  of  ether),  which 
is  still  in  use. 

Holland,  John  P.,  vii,  105.  Born  in  1841. 
American  inventor.  Began  building  submarine 
boats  in  1875,  and  in  1900  had  so  perfected  them 


KEY   AND  INDEX 

that  one  was  accepted  by  the  United  States 
Government.  Since  that  time  he  has  added  im- 
provements to  his  boats,  a  fleet  of  which  are 
now  in  commission  in  the  United  States  service. 

Holland,  Philemon,  i,  77.  Born  at  Chelms- 
ford,  England,  1552;  died  at  Coventry,  Feb.  9, 
1637.  English  writer  and  translator.  He  trans- 
lated Pliny's  "Natural  History"  in  1601. 

Honain  ben  Isaac,  ii,  24.  Lived  about  809- 
873,  A.D.  An  Arabian  physician.  He  was  a 
Christian  Arab,  who  followed  the  medical  teach- 
ings of  Galen.  He  was  a  great  translator,  and 
one  of  the  greatest  philosophers  of  the  Ninth 
Century. 

Hooke,  Robert,  ii,  215.  Born  at  Isle  of  Wight, 
England,  July  18,  1635;  died  at  London,  March 
3,  1703.  English  mathematician  and  natural 
philosopher.  Inventor  of  many  ingenious  and 
useful  devices,  among  them  the  balance-spring 
for  regulating  watches.  He  originated  the  idea 
of  making  use  of  the  pendulum  in  measuring 
gravity,  and  first  proposed  the  wave  theory  of 
light. 

Hooker,  Sir  Joseph  Dalton,  iv,  171.  Born  at 
Halesworth,  Suffolk,  June  30,  1817.  English 
botanist.  With  Lyell  he  first  induced  Darwin  to 
make  public  his  work  on  the  theory  of  evolu- 
tion. He  was  director  of  the  Kew  Gardens  for 
twenty  years,  president  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1873,  and  president  of  the  British  Association 
in  1868. 

Howard,  Luke,  iii,  182.  British  scientist.  Died 
early  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  In  1803  ne 
published  in  the  "Philosophical  Magazine,"  a 
paper  on  clouds  in  which  he  gave  names  that 

[112] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

were  afterward  universally  adopted.  He  held 
that  clouds  are  composed  of  vapor  that  has 
previously  risen  from  the  earth. 

Howe,  Elias,  ix,  93.  Born  at  Spencer,  Mass., 
July  9,  1819;  died  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  3, 
1867.  American  inventor.  He  invented  a  sew- 
ing-machine in  1845,  which  is  considered  the 
direct  ancestor  of  all  modern  sewing-machines. 
It  used  an  eye-pointed  needle,  and  a  shuttle,  such 
as  sewing-machines  use  at  present. 

Huggins,  Sir  William.  Born  at  London,  Feb. 
17,  1824;  died  in  May,  1910.  English  astrono- 
mer. He  was  a  pioneer  in  utilizing  spectroscopy 
and  photography  together.  In  1864  he  discov- 
ered that  the  planetary  nebula  in  Draco  consists 
of  luminous  gas.  In  1868,  through  use  of  the 
spectroscope,  he  proved  the  existence  of  carbon 
in  comets.  His  name  is  closely  associated  with 
most  recent  advances  in  spectrum  analysis. 

Humboldt,  Alexander  von,  iii,  192.  Born  at 
Berlin,  Sept.  14,  1769;  died  at  Berlin,  May  6, 
1859.  Celebrated  German  scientist  and  author. 
In  a  paper  on  isothermal  lines  and  the  distri- 
bution of  heat  on  the  earth  he  laid  the  founda- 
tion for  a  science  of  comparative  climatology. 
He  made  extensive  journeys  in  South  America, 
Mexico,  Siberia  and  the  Caspian  Sea  region  for 
scientific  observation.  His  "Kosmos"  published 
in  1845-58  is  perhaps  the  greatest  of  his  books. 

Hunter,  John,  iv,  78.  Born  at  Long  Calder- 
wood,  Scotland,  Feb.  13,  1728;  died  at  London, 
Oct.  1 6,  1793.  British  surgeon,  anatomist  and 
physiologist.  First  to  discover  the  system  of 
vessels  known  as  lymphatics,  although  the  func- 
tion of  these  vessels  was  suggested  by  his 


KEY   AND   INDEX 

brother,  William  Hunter.  His  studies  of  ten- 
dons laid  the  foundation  for  the  operation  for 
the  cure  of  club  feet.  His  experiments  to  de- 
termine the  blood-supply  for  the  growing  antler 
of  a  deer  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  "collateral 
circulation  of  the  blood" — one  of  the  most  im- 
portant discoveries  in  surgery.  This  led  directly 
to  his  invention  of  the  "Hunterian"  operation 
for  aneurism,  an  operation  still  in  use,  and  which 
has  made  the  name  of  Hunter  immortal  in  the 
annals  of  surgery. 

Hunter,  William,  iv,  76.  Born  at  Long  Cal- 
derwood,  Scotland,  May  23,  1718;  died  at  Lon- 
don, March  30,  1783.  British  physician,  anato- 
mist and  physiologist.  The  first  great  teacher 
of  anatomy  in  England.  He  discovered  the 
function  of  the  lymphatics,  and  his  writings  on 
the  structure  of  the  synovial  membranes,  in 
1743,  anticipated  Bichat's  writing  on  the  same 
theme  by  sixty  years.  He  established  a  museum 
which  is  now  the  property  of  the  University  of 
Glasgow. 

Hutton,  James,  iii,  178.  Born  at  Edinburgh, 
June  3,  1726;  died  March  26,  1797.  Scottish 
geologist.  One  of  the  founders  of  geological 
science.  In  his  "Theory  of  the  Earth,"  he  ex- 
pounded the  doctrine  that  the  present  rocks  of 
the  earth's  surface  have  been  formed  out  of  the 
waste  of  older  rocks;  that  these  materials  have 
been  laid  down  under  the  sea  and  consolidated 
by  great  pressure;  that  the  expansive  power  of 
subterranean  heat  afterward  upheaved  them,  and 
that  masses  of  molten  rock  were  injected  into 
the  gaps  of  the  disrupted  strata. 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henry,  iii,  112;  iv,  174.  Born 

[114] 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 

at  Baling,  England,  May  4,  1825;  died  at  East- 
bourne, June  29,  1895.  English  biologist.  Fore- 
most English  champion  of  Darwin's  theory  of 
evolution,  his  active  interest  in  the  subject  be- 
ing largely  responsible  for  the  early  acceptance 
of  Darwin's  conception. 

Huygens,  Christian,  ii,  218.  Born  at  The 
Hague,  April  14,  1629;  died  there  June  8,  1695. 
A  celebrated  mathematician,  physicist,  and  as- 
tronomer. He  was  the  inventor  of  the  pendu- 
lum clock.  With  his  brothers  he  constructed  a 
telescope  with  which  he  discovered  a  hitherto 
unknown  satellite  of  Saturn.  Later  he  adapted 
the  micrometer  to  the  telescope,  this  being  a  me- 
chanical device  upon  which  the  nice  determina- 
tion of  minutes  depends.  One  of  his  many 
interesting  papers  sent  to  the  Royal  Society  was 
his  "Rules  Concerning  the  Motion  of  Bodies 
after  Mutual  Impulse,"  in  which  the  laws  of 
motion  are  stated  in  remarkably  clear  and  con- 
cise terms. 

Jackson,  Dr.  Charles  Thomas,  iv,  215.  Born 
at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  June  21,  1805;  died  at 
Somerville,  Mass.,  Aug.  29,  1880.  American 
physician  and  geologist.  One  of  the  claimants 
to  the  discovery  of  etherization.  Also  claimant 
to  the  invention  of  a  telegraph  similar  to 
Morse's. 

Jacquard,  Joseph  Marie,  ix,  49.  Born  at  Lyons, 
France,  July  7,  1752;  died  near  Lyons,  Aug.  7, 
1834.  French  mechanic  and  inventor.  He  in- 
vented the  Jacquard  loom  about  1801.  Modifica- 
tions of  this  loom  are  still  used  extensively  for 
weaving  designs  and  patterns. 

Jansen  (or  Zanss)  Zacharias,  ii,  77.    A  Dutch 


KEY   AND   INDEX 

optician.  About  1590  placed  a  concave  and  a 
convex  lens  respectively  at  the  end  of  a  tube, 
and  used  this  device  for  magnifying  small  ob- 
jects. This  is  the  first  recorded  instance  of  the 
use  of  a  compound  microscope. 

Jenner,  Edward,  iv,  190.  Born  at  Berkeley, 
England,  May  17,  1749;  died  there  Jan.  26,  1823. 
English  physician,  the  discoverer  of  vaccination. 
In  investigating  the  disease  known  as  cowpox, 
he  discovered  that  after  inoculation  by  this  dis- 
ease the  patient  was  immune  from  smallpox. 
This  was  the  basis  of  his  discovery — probably 
the  greatest  in  medicine  previous  to  his  time, 
and  for  about  two  generations  following. 

Joule,  James  Prescott,  iii,  269.  Born  at  Sal- 
ford,  England,  Dec.  24,  1818;  died  at  Sale,  Oct. 
n,  1889.  English  physicist.  One  of  the  first 
to  expound  the  doctrine  of  the  conservation  of 
energy.  His  paper  "On  the  Calorfic  Effects  of 
Magneto-electricity,  and  the  Mechanical  Value 
of  Heat"  was  published  in  1843.  Tyndall  be- 
lieved that  Joule  and  Mayer  were  equally  en- 
titled to  the  credit  of  this  revolutionary  dis- 
covery. 

Jussieu,  Antoine  and  Bernard,  de,  ii,  303.  An- 
toine,  born  at  Lyons,  France,  April  12,  1748; 
died  at  Paris,  Sept.  17,  1836.  Bernard,  born  at 
Lyons,  France,  Aug.  17,  1699;  died  at  Paris, 
Nov.  6,  1776.  Two  celebrated  French  botanists, 
who  founded  the  natural  system  of  the  classifica- 
tion of  plants.  By  some  authorities  the  credit 
of  this  classification  is  given  to  Bernard. 

Kadmus  (or  Cadmus),  i,  86.  In  Greek  legend 
he  is  reported  to  have  introduced  the  letters  of 

[116] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

the  alphabet.    According  to  the  legend,  he  was 
the  son  of  a  Phoenician  king. 

Kant,  Immanuel,  iii,  26.  Born  at  Konigsberg, 
Prussia,  April  22,  1724;  died  there  Feb.  12,  1804. 
Celebrated  German  philosopher.  He  conceived 
the  nebular  hypothesis  which  attempted  to  ex- 
plain world  formation  along  rational  lines.  The 
puzzling  questions  left  unanswered  by  Kant 
were  answered  by  Laplace's  nebular  hypothesis 
(see  Vol.  iii,  31). 

Kay,  John,  ix,  22.  Born  near  Bury,  Lan- 
cashire, July  1 6,  1704;  died  in  France  about 
1764-5.  English  mechanic  and  inventor.  He  in- 
vented the  "flying  shuttle,"  a  power  loom,  and 
several  other  aids  to  weaving.  On  account  of 
these  inventions  mobs  of  workmen  wrecked  his 
house,  stole  his  machines,  and  drove  him  from 
the  country. 

Kay,  Robert,  ix,  43.  Son  of  John  Kay.  In 
1760  he  invented  the  "drop-box,"  a  device  which 
enabled  the  weaver  to  insert  several  colors  as 
strips  across  the  length  of  his  loom  with  great 
facility. 

Kelvin,  Lord  (William  Thomson),  iii,  165;  v, 
1 06.  Born  at  Belfast,  Ireland,  June  1829;  died 
at  London,  Dec.  17,  1907.  Celebrated  British 
physicist.  Active  in  almost  every  field  of  natu- 
ral philosophy.  Took  an  active  part  in  laying 
the  Atlantic  cable,  and  invented  the  mirror-gal- 
vanometer and  siphon-recorder  in  connection 
with  that  work.  Was  first  to  maintain  that  the 
earth  is  practically  solid  to  the  center  and  has 
the  rigidity  of  steel.  Invented  the  short-needle 
compass  now  in  universal  use  by  mariners.  Was 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

knighted  in  1866,  and  created  Baron  Kelvin  in 
1892. 

Kepler,  Johann,  ii,  70.  Born  at  Weil  der  Stadt, 
Wiirtemberg,  Dec.  27,  1571;  died  at  Ratisbon, 
Bavaria,  Nov.  15,  1630.  One  of  the  founders 
of  modern  astronomy.  His  name  is  associated 
with  three  laws  of  planetary  motion,  which  are 
as  follows:  (i)  The  orbits  of  the  planets  are 
ellipses  having  the  sun  at  one  focus;  (2)  The 
areas  described  by  their  radii  vectores  in  equal 
times  are  equal;  (3)  The  squares  of  their  peri- 
odic times  are  proportional  to  the  cubes  of  their 
mean  distances  from  the  sun. 

Khamurabi,  (Hammurabi),  Code  of  i,  76. 
King  of  Babylon  about  2000  B.C.  He  instituted 
a  code  of  laws  older  than  the  laws  of  either 
Manu  or  Moses. 

Kirchhoff,  Gustav  Robert,  iv,  69.  Born  at 
Konigsberg,  Prussia,  Mar.  12,  1824;  died  at  Ber- 
lin, Oct.  17,  1887.  German  physicist.  With 
Bunsen  he  discovered  the  method  of  spectrum 
analysis  in  1860. 

Kleist,  Dean  von.    (See  Von  Kleist.) 

Koch,  Dr.  Robert,  iv,  228.  Born  at  Klansthal, 
Hanover,  Dec.  u,  1843;  died  May  27,  1910.  Ger- 
man bacteriologist.  In  his  study  of  bacteriol- 
ogy he  isolated  the  anthrax  bacillus,  and  in  1883 
announced  a  method  of  preventive  inoculation 
against  the  disease.  The  year  before  (1882)  he 
discovered  the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis,  and  eight 
years  later  announced  the  discovery  of  tubercu- 
lin, which  he  hoped  would  prove  to  be  a  cure 
for  consumption.  In  1883  he  identified  the 
comma  bacillus  as  the  organism  responsible  for 
Asiatic  cholera. 

[118] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

Kunz,  Dr.  George  F.,  v,  101.  Born  at  New 
York,  Sept.  20,  1856.  American  gem  expert. 
Special  agent  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  in  1883.  Had  charge  of  the  department  of 
mines,  World's  Columbian,  and  Paris  Exposi- 
tions. Has  written  extensively  on  gems  and 
minerals.  Author  of  "Gems  and  Precious 
Stones  of  North  America,"  "Mineral  Resources 
of  the  United  States,"  etc.  The  recently  discov- 
ered precious  stone  kunzite  was  named  in  his 
honor. 

Lacaille,  Nicolas  Louis  de,  iii,  13.  Born  at 
Rumigny,  France,  March  15,  1713;  died  at  Paris, 
March  21,  1762.  Noted  French  astronomer. 
Measured  the  French  arc  of  the  meridian  in 
1739-41.  In  1751  he  went  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  and  made  many  important  observations 
on  the  stars  of  the  southern  hemisphere.  While 
on  this  expedition  he  determined  the  sun's  par- 
allax by  observing  the  parallaxes  of  Mars  and 
Venus. 

Laennec,  Rene  Theophile  Hyacinthe,  iv,  201. 
Born  at  Quimper,  France,  Feb.  17,  1781;  died 
Aug.  13,  1826.  French  physician.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  the  stethoscope,  an  instrument  which 
is  of  great  aid  in  diagnosis  of  diseases  of  the 
heart  and  lungs. 

Lamarck,  Jean  Baptiste  De,  iv,  151.  Born  at 
Bazentin,  France,  Aug.  i,  1744;  died  at  Paris, 
Dec.  1 8,  1829.  French  naturalist.  His  work 
helped  directly  to  lay  the  foundation  for  Dar- 
win's doctrine  of  evolution.  His  views  differed 
from  Darwin's  about  the  part  played  by  the 
active  exertion  of  the  organism  and  by  "ap- 
petency." 


KEY  AND   INDEX 

Langley,  S.  P.,  vii,  275.  Born  at  Roxbury, 
Boston,  Mass.,  Aug.  22,  1834;  died  at  Aiken, 
S.C.,  Feb.  27,  1906.  American  astronomer.  In 
1887  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Smithso- 
nian Institution.  Became  interested  in  the  prob- 
lem of  aerial  flight,  and  invented  the-  first 
heavier-than-air  machine  of  any  considerable 
size  which  could  fly  by  means  of  self-contained 
power. 

Laplace,  Marquis  Pierre  Simon  de,  iii,  32. 
Born  at  Beaumont-en-Auge,  Calvados,  France, 
March  28,  1749;  died  at  Paris,  March  5,  1827. 
Celebrated  French  astronomer  and  mathemati- 
cian. He  made  important  discoveries  concern- 
ing the  inequality  of  the  motions  of  Jupiter  and 
Saturn,  of  the  moon,  and  the  tides.  He  devel- 
oped the  nebular  hypothesis  of  cosmogony  with 
such  thoroughness  that  "posterity  will  always 
link  it  with  his  name." 

Lavoisier,  Antoine  Laurent,  iv,  33.  Born  at 
Paris,  Aug.  16,  1743;  died  (guillotined)  at  Paris, 
May  8,  1794.  French  chemist,  the  founder  of 
modern  chemistry.  He  overthrew  the  "phlogis- 
tic" chemistry  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  He 
introduced  a  new  chemical  nomenclature  which 
has  remained  practically  unchanged  except  in 
the  matter  of  additions,  to  the  present  time. 

Layard,  Sir  Henry  Austen,  viii,  103.  Born  at 
Paris,  March  5,  1817;  died  at  London,  July  5, 
1894.  English  archaeologist.  He  is  noted  for  his 
archaeological  discoveries  about  Nineveh,  and 
his  decipherment  of  the  cuneiform  characters 
on  the  Assyrian  monuments. 

Lee,  Rev.  William,  ix,  56.  Born  at  Notting- 
ham (date  unknown);  died  at  Paris  about  1610. 

[120] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

English  clergyman  and  inventor.  About  1589 
he  invented  a  knitting  machine  which  would 
knit  at  a  rate  more  than  ten  times  faster  than 
could  be  done  by  hand.  The  English  hand- 
knitters  opposed  the  use  of  this  invention,  and 
it  was  not  until  after  the  death  of  the  inventor 
that  his  machine  was  put  to  practical  use. 

Leeuwenhoek,  Anthony  van,  ii,  179.  Born  at 
Delft,  Netherlands,  Oct.  24,  1632;  died  at  Delft, 
Aug.  26,  1723.  Dutch  microscopist  and  natural- 
ist. Discovered  microbes  in  the  secretions  of  the 
mouth  in  1683.  He  also  discovered  red  blood- 
corpuscles,  spermatozoa,  and  the  capillary  cir- 
culation of  the  blood. 

Leibnitz,  Gottfried  Wilhelm  von,  ii,  197.  Born 
at  Leipsic,  July  6,  1646;  died  at  Hanover,  Nov. 
14,  1716.  German  philosopher  and  mathemati- 
cian. Called,  with  reason,  "a  universal  genius." 
He  was  the  inventor  of  the  differential  and  in- 
tegral calculus.  He  conceived  the  theory  that 
the  entire  universe  is  composed  of  individual 
centers,  or  monads,  and  deduced  the  doctrine 
of  pre-established  harmony.  His  influence  on 
the  scientific  thought  of  his  time  was  very 
marked. 

Leidy,  Joseph,  iv,  207.  Born  at  Philadelphia, 
Sept.  9,  1823;  died  April  30,  1891.  American 
naturalist.  In  1827  he  discovered  the  cyst  of 
"Trichina  spiralis"  in  pork.  He  made  impor- 
tant discoveries  and  wrote  extensively  on  the 
subject  of  extinct  vertebrate  fauna. 

Leonardo,  Vinci,  da,  i,  129;  ii,  47.  Born  at 
Vinci,  Italy,  1452;  died  near  Ambrosie,  France, 
May  2,  1519.  Famous  Italian  artist,  architect, 
musician,  and  scientist.  Perhaps  the  most  uni- 

[121] 


KEY   AND  INDEX 

versal  genius  that  ever  lived.  As  a  scientist  he 
anticipated  Copernicus  in  determining  the  move- 
ment of  the  earth,  and  made  elaborate  calcula- 
tions to  prove  that  the  earth  moves.  He  in- 
vented a  dynamometer  for  determining  the 
traction  power  of  machines  and  animals,  and 
invented  a  "steam  engine"  which  "drove  a  ball 
weighing  one  talent  over  a  distance  of  six 
stadia.7'  He  is  credited  with  the  discovery  of 
the  camera  obscura.  He  observed  the  deposit 
of  fossil  shells  in  rocks,  and  drew  the  correct 
conclusion  that  these  had  been  deposited  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  even  though  now  resting  on 
the  tops  of  mountains.  He  drew  designs  for 
flying  machines  of  the  aeroplane  type,  with  bird- 
like  wings.  He  was  so  far  in  advance  of  the 
scientific  knowledge  of  his  time  that  his  efforts 
produced  few  immediate  results. 

Lepsius,  Karl  Richard,  i,  27.  Born  at  Naum- 
berg,  Prussia,  Dec.  23,  1810;  died  at  Berlin,  July 
10,  1884.  German  Egyptologist  and  philologist. 
His  work  helped  in  clearing  the  field  for  our 
present  knowledge  of  ancient  Egypt. 

Leucippus,  i,  161 ;  lived  about  500  B.C.  Greek 
philosopher.  Originated  (with  Democritus)  the 
atomic  theory  of  matter. 

Lewes,  George  Henry,  i,  131.  Born  at  Lon- 
don, April  18,  1817;  died  Nov.  30,  1878.  English 
philosophical  writer.  Wrote  extensively  in  many 
fields  of  scientific  thought,  throwing  much  light 
on  the  Greek  philosophers,  and,  in  modern  times, 
such  scientists  as  Comte  and  Goethe. 

Liebig,  Baron  Justin  von,  iv,  131.  Born  at 
Darmstadt,  May  12,  1803;  died  at  Munich,  April 
18,  1873.  German  chemist.  Celebrated  for  his 
[122] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

researches  in  organic  chemistry,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  chemistry  to  food  and  agriculture.  He 
demonstrated  that  the  source  of  animal  heat  is 
really  the  consumption  of  the  fuel  taken  in 
through  the  stomach  and  lungs. 

Lilienthal,  Otto,  vii,  278.  Born  at  Anklam, 
Germany,  May  23,  1848;  died  Aug.  9,  1896.  Ger- 
man engineer  and  pioneer  in  aviation.  His  ex- 
periments with  gliding  machines  and  his  suc- 
cessful flights  with  various  types  of  gliders  gave 
the  impetus  to  invention  that  culminated  in  the 
invention  of  the.  Wright  Brothers'  aeroplane.  He 
was  killed  by  a  fall  from  one  of  his  gliders. 

Linnaeus,'  Carolus,  ii,  299.  Born  at  Rashult, 
Sweden,  May  13,  1707;  died  at  Upsala,  Sweden, 
Jan.  10,  1778.  Swedish  naturalist  and  botanist. 
Founder  of  the  "Linnaeus  system"  in  botany, 
which  has  since  been  supplanted. 

Lippershey,  Johannes,  ii,  78.  Died  1619.  One 
of  the  first  to  experiment  with  combinations  of 
lenses  to  form  a  telescope.  The  instrument  as 
constructed  by  him  is  still  known  as  the  "Dutch 
Telescope." 

Lister,  Dr.  Joseph  (Lord  Lister),  iv,  229;  v, 
19.  Born  April  5,  1827.  Noted  English  sur- 
geon, the  father  of  antiseptic  surgery.  He  be- 
gan publishing  the  results  of  his  researches  in 
1867,  but  it  was  not  until  about  ten  years  later 
that  their  full  significance  had  been  demon- 
strated in  practical  surgery.  The  rapid  advan- 
ces in  surgery  made  during  the  past  quarter  of 
a  century  are  due  largely  to  Lister's  revolution- 
ary discovery. 

Lister,  Joseph  Jackson,  iv,  113.  Born  at  Lon- 
don, Jan.  n,  1786;  died  Oct.  24,  1869.  English 

[123! 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

physician.  He  discovered  the  principle  of  apla- 
natic  foci,  and  as  a  result  he  greatly  improved 
the  construction  of  object  glasses  of  micro- 
scopes. 

Lockyer,  Sir  Norman,  v,  73.  Born  at  Rugby, 
England,  May  17,  1836.  A  noted  English  as- 
tronomer. He  is  noted  for  much  original  work 
in  the  field  of  astronomy,  and  is  an  ardent  ad- 
vocate among  other  things  of  the  theory  of  the 
meteoric  origin  of  all  members  of  the  sidereal 
family;  and  the  dissociation  theory  of  the  ele- 
ments, according  to  which  our  so-called  elements 
are  really  compounds,  capable  of  being  disso- 
ciated into  simpler  forms  when  subjected  to 
extreme  temperatures,  such  as  pertain  in  many 
stars. 

Lodge,  Sir  Oliver,  v,  109.  Born  at  Stafford- 
shire, England,  June  12,  1851.  English  physi- 
cist. His  name  is  closely  associated  with  the 
advances  in  our  knowledge  of  radio  activity  and 
the  structure  of  the  atom.  He  has  suggested 
that  the  instability  of  the  atom  may  be  the  re- 
sult of  the  atom's  radiation  of  energies. 

Long,  Dr.  Crawford  W.,  iv,  215.  An  Ameri- 
can physician  whose  name  is  closely  associated 
with  the  discovery  of  etherization.  He  actually 
performed  painless  surgical  operations  of  a 
minor  nature  with  the  use  of  ether  some  little 
time  before  Morton's  demonstration.  But  he 
was  not  sure  that  the  effects  produced  were  not 
due  to  hypnotism  quite  as  much  as  to  the  drug. 

Lotze,  Rudolf  Hermann,  iv,  263.  Born  at 
Bautzen,  Saxony,  May  21,  1817;  died  at  Berlin, 
July  i,  1881.  German  physiologist,  psycholo- 
gist, and  philosopher.  He  is  remembered  as  a 

[124] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

physiologist  for  his  opposition  to  the  theory  of 
a  "vital  force."  His  famous  paper  opposing  this 
doctrine  appeared  in  1852. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John,  iv,  175.  Born  at  London, 
March  26,  1803;  died  near  Farnborough,  Kent, 
June  20,  1865.  Celebrated  English  mathemati- 
cian and  astronomer.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
to  champion  Darwin's  theory  of  evolution.  His 
best  known  work  is  "On  the  Theory  of  the 
Moon  and  on  the  Perturbations  of  the  Planets." 

Ludolff ,  Christian  Friedrich,  ii,  276.  German 
scientist,  particularly  remembered  for  his  dem- 
onstration that  electric  sparks  are  actual  fire. 
This  demonstration  was  made  before  the  Acad- 
emy of  Science  at  Berlin  in  1744,  and  consisted 
of  touching  the  surface  of  a  spoonful  of  sul- 
phuric ether  with  a  charged  glass  rod,  causing  it 
to  burst  into  flame. 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  iii,  84.  Born  at  Kinnorby, 
Forfar  shire,  Scotland,  Nov.  14,  1797;  died  at 
London,  Feb.  22,  1875.  Celebrated  British  geol- 
ogist. He  is  especially  famous  as  an  opponent 
of  the  old  catastrophism  in  geology,  and  it  was 
largely  through  his  efforts  that  this  doctrine  was 
finally  overthrown.  His  views  were  bitterly 
opposed  and  were  not  accepted  universally  for 
something  like  a  quarter  of  a  century  after  he 
had  propounded  them. 

Magendie,  Francois,  iv,  203.  Born  at  Bor- 
deaux, France,  Oct.  15,  1783;  died  at  Paris,  Oct. 
7,  1855.  A  noted  French  physician,  anatomist 
and  physiologist.  He  was  one  of  the  experi- 
mental physiologists  of  the  early  Nineteenth 
Century  who  laid  the  foundation  for  modern 
scientific  medicine.  He  is  especially  remem- 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

bered  for  his  experiments  on  the  physiology  of 
the  nerves. 

Malpighi,  Marcello,  ii,  179.  Born  near  Bo- 
logna, Italy,  March  10,  1628;  died  at  Rome, 
Nov.  29,  1694.  An  Italian  anatomist  and  physi- 
ologist. He  is  remembered  as  the  father  of 
microscopic  anatomy.  As  early  as  the  year  1661 
he  discovered  the  capillary  vessels  connecting 
the  veins  and  arteries  by  the  aid  of  the  micro- 
scope. A  little  later  he  observed  the  passage  of 
the  blood  corpuscles  through  these  minute  ves- 
sels, making  his  observations  on  the  lung  of  a 
turtle.  His  work  completed  the  last  link  of  the 
chain  which  Harvey  had  all  but  established  in 
proving  the  course  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood. 

Marchettis,  Peter,  ii,  185.  (1589-1675.)  An 
Italian  physician,  one  of  the  leading  surgeons 
of  the  Seventeenth  Century. 

Marconi,  Guglielmo,  viii,  14.  Born  at  Bo- 
logna, Italy,  April  25,  1874.  Italian  inventor. 
Noted  for  perfecting  a  system  of  wireless  teleg- 
raphy. In  1899  he  began  sending  messages 
across  the  English  Channel,  and  this  date  may 
be  considered  as  opening  the  era  of  wireless 
telegraphy. 

Mariotte,  Edme,  ii,  210.  Born  at  Burgundy 
about  1620;  died  at  Paris,  May  12,  1684.  French 
physicist.  He  demonstrated  that  but  for  the 
resistance  of  the  atmosphere,  all  bodies,  whether 
light  or  heavy,  dense  or  thin,  would  fall  with 
equal  rapidity.  He  proved  this  by  the  well- 
known  "Guinea-and-feather"  experiment — pla- 
cing a  coin  and  a  feather  in  a  tube  from  which 
the  air  had  been  exhausted,  and  showing  that 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

the  rate  of  falling  in  a  vacuum  was  the  same. 
The  name  "Mariotte's  law"  is  given  to  the  prin- 
ciple discovered  by  Boyle  that  the  volume  of  a 
given  mass  of  gas  varies  inversely  as  the  pres- 
sure which  it  bears  at  any  given  temperature. 

Marsh,  Othniel  Charles,  iii,  107.  Born  at 
Lockport,  New  York,  Oct.  29,  1831;  died  at 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  March  18,  1899.  American 
paleontologist.  He  is  especially  remembered  for 
his  work  in  collecting  and  classifying  the  fossils 
found  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region.  It  was 
he  who  discovered  the  earliest  progenitors  of 
the  horse,  the  fossil  remains  of  which  were 
found  during  this  extensive  work  in  the  West. 

Maspero,  Gaston  Camilla  Charles,  i,  28.  Born 
at  Paris,  June  24,  1846.  French  Egyptologist. 
His  best  known  work  is  "History  of  the  Ancient 
People  of  the  Orient." 

Maupertius,  Pierre  Louis  Moreau  de,  iv,  149. 
Born  at  St.  Malo,  France,  July  17,  1698;  died  at 
Basel,  Switzerland,  July  27,  1759.  French  as- 
tronomer, mathematician,  and  philosopher.  In 
1 736-37  he  went  to  Lapland  and  measured  ac- 
curately a  degree  of  longitude.  He  supported 
the  Newtonian  theory  against  the  Cartesians, 
and  had  conceived  vaguely  the  idea  of  transmu- 
tation of  species. 

Maury,  Matthew  Fontaine,  iii,  196.  Born  at 
Spottsylvania  County,  Va.,  Jan.  14,  1806;  died 
at  Lexington,  Va.,  Feb.  I,  1873.  Ameri- 
can naval  officer,  hydrographer  and  meteorolo- 
gist. Advocated  a  theory  of  gravitation  as  the 
chief  cause  of  ocean  currents.  He  gave  the 
first  complete  description  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 

Maxim,  Sir  Hiram  Stevens,  vi,  228;  vii,  283. 

[127] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Born  at  Sangerville,  Me.,  Feb.  1840.  American- 
English  inventor.  He  is  noted  for  his  inven- 
tion of  automatic  firearms,  and  for  his  studies 
of  aerial  navigation.  In  1894  he  demonstrated 
that  a  heavy  machine  properly  equipped  with 
plane-surface  could  be  made  to  rise  from  the 
ground  and  be  sustained  by  the  air. 

Maxwell,  James  Clerk,  iii,  44.  Born  at  Edin- 
burgh, Nov.  13,  1831 ;  died  Nov.  5,  1879.  Scotch 
physicist.  Especially  remembered  for  his  studies 
of  the  motion  of  Saturn's  rings,  and  his  investi- 
gation's as  to  the  nature  of  electricity  and  mag- 
netism. In  1871  he  published  his  "Theory  of 
Heat,"  and  in  1876,  "Matter  and  Motion." 

Mayer,  Dr.  Julius  Robert  von,  iii,  258.  Born 
at  Heilbronn,  Wurtemberg,  Nov.  25,  1814;  died 
at  Heilbronn,  March  20,  1878.  German  physi- 
cian and  physicist.  In  1842  he  originated  the 
mechanical  theory  of  heat,  and  propounded  the 
entire  doctrine  of  the  conservation  of  energy. 
He  was  led  to  his  conclusions  by  the  observa- 
tions made  on  patients  while  acting  as  surgeon 
on  a  Dutch  India  vessel  cruising  in  the  tropics. 

Mendeleeff,  Dmitri  Ivanovitch,  iv,  68.  Born 
at  Tobolsk,  Siberia,  Feb.  vii,  1834.  Celebrated 
Russian  chemist.  He  was  the  discoverer  of  the 
periodic  system  of  the  chemical  elements.  This 
discovery  had  enabled  Mendeleeff  to  predicate 
the  existence  of  new  elements  years  before  they 
were  discovered. 

Mercator  (right  name  Gerhard  Kremer),  vii, 
30.  Born  at  Rupelmondo,  Belgium,  March  5, 
1512;  died  at  Dinsburg,  Prussia,  Dec.  2,  1594. 
Flemish  geographer.  Remembered  particularly 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

for  his  invention  of  the  Mercator  system  of  pro- 
jection of  maps. 

Meyer,  Lothar,  iv,  68.  He  conceived  the  so- 
called  "Law  of  Octaves"  afterward  fully  expli- 
cated by  Mendeleeff  (q.v.)  under  the  title  of 
"The  Periodic  Law." 

Mohl,  Hugo  von,  iv,  125.     (See  von  Mohl.) 

Mohr,  Karl  Friedrich,  iii,  257.  Born  at  Co- 
blenz,  Germany,  Nov.  4,  1806;  died  at  Bonn, 
Sept.  27,  1879.  German  chemist  and  physicist. 
He  was  first  to  state  the  doctrine  of  the  con- 
servation of  energy  which  he  had  independently 
conceived.  He  did  not  demonstrate  the  valid- 
ity of  his  conception  as  clearly  as  Mayer  did 
five  years  later,  but  his  conception  is  apparently 
the  first  ever  recorded. 

Moissan,  Prof.  Henri,  ix,  328.  Born  at  Paris. 
Sept.  28,  1852;  died  Feb.  20,  1907.  French  chem- 
ist. Noted  for  his  accomplishments  with  the 
electric  furnace.  In  1892  discovered  a  method 
of  manufacturing  acetylene  at  a  cost  that 
is  commercially  profitable.  In  1893  formed 
diamonds  from  iron  melted  in  an  electric  fur- 
nace and  cooled  suddenly. 

Mondino  of  Bologna,  ii,  37.  Born  in  1276; 
died  in  1326.  An  Italian  physician  known  as 
the  "restorer  of  anatomy."  He  is  known  to 
have  made  careful  dissections  of  the  human 
body,  and  his  writings  on  anatomy  based  on  his 
observations  were  a  step  in  advance  over  the 
generally  accepted  writings  of  Galen. 

Montgolfier,  Joseph  Michel,  vii,  230.  Born  at 
Ardeche,  France,  1740;  died  at  Balarnc,  France, 
June  26,  1810.  French  mechanician  and  in- 


KEY  AND   INDEX 

ventor.     With  his  brother  invented  the  hot-air 
balloon,  a  public  exhibition  being  given  in  1782. 

Montgolfier,  Stephen,  vii,  230.  Born  at  Ar- 
deche,  France,  Jan.  7,  1745;  died  in  Servieres, 
Aug.  2,  1799.  French  mechanician  and  inventor 
(with  his  brother  Joseph,  q.v.)  of  the  hot-air  bal- 
loon. 

Morgagni,  Giovanni  Battista,  iv,  76.  Born  at 
Forli,  Italy,  Feb.  25,  1682;  died  at  Padua,  Italy, 
Nov.  5,  1771.  An  Italian  physician  and  anato- 
mist. He  made  exhaustive  studies  of  the  struc- 
ture of  diseased  tissue  both  during  life  and  post- 
mortem, and  as  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  inves- 
tigate this  subject  he  is  one  of  the  founders 
of  pathological  anatomy.  From  the  time  of  the 
publication  of  Morgagni's  researches  morbid 
anatomy  became  a  recognized  branch  of  medical 
science. 

Morgan,  Lewis  Henry,  vi,  25.  Born  at  Aurora, 
N.  Y.,  Nov.  21,  1818;  died  at  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
Dec.  17,  1881.  American  archaeologist  and  an- 
thropologist. He  was  first  to  give  a  scientific 
account  of  the  organization  and  government  of 
the  Indian  tribe. 

Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.,  viii,  17.  Born  at  Charles- 
town,  Mass.,  April  27,  1791;  died  at  New  York, 
April  2,  1872.  American  artist  and  inventor  of 
the  electric  telegraph.  He  began  life  as  a  por- 
trait painter,  but  turned  his  attention  to  inven- 
tion, and  in  1832  designed  an  electric  telegraph. 
He  applied  for  a  patent  in  1837,  and  in  1844  a 
line  of  telegraph  was  completed  between  Balti- 
more and  Washington,  an  appropriation  for  its 
construction  having  been  granted  by  Congress 
the  year  before. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

Morton,  Dr.  William  Thomas  Greene,  iv,  214. 
Born  at  Charlton,  Mass.,  Aug.  9,  1819;  died  at 
New  York,  July  15,  1868.  An  American  dentist, 
the  discoverer  of  etherization.  On  October  16, 
1846,  Dr.  Morton  administered  ether  to  a  pa- 
tient in  the  Massachusetts  General  Hospital,  at 
Boston,  and  Dr.  Warren  performed  a  difficult 
operation,  the  removal  of  a  tumor  from  the  pa- 
tient's neck.  This  operation  inaugurated  the 
era  of  painless  surgery  for  which  Dr.  Morton's 
discovery  is  responsible. 

Muller,  Johannes,  iv,  122.  Born  at  Coblenz, 
Germany,  July  14,  1801 ;  died  at  Berlin,  April 
27,  1858.  German  physiologist  and  comparative 
anatomist.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  mod- 
ern physiology. 

Murdoch,  William,  vi,  207;  vii,  158.  Born  at 
Auchinleck,  Ayrshire,  Aug.  21,  1753;  died  at 
Birmingham,  Nov.  15,  1839.  Scottish  inventor. 
He  was  associated  with  Watt  in  Birmingham, 
and  in  1795  first  made  use  of  illuminating  gas 
at  that  place.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  oscil- 
lating steam-engine. 

Musschenbroek,  Peter  van,  ii,  280.  Born  at 
Leyden,  Netherlands,  March  14,  1692;  died  there 
Sept.  19,  1761.  Dutch  natural  philosopher  and 
mathematician.  One  of  the  discoverers  of  the 
Leyden  jar.  His  discovery  was  made  at  about 
the  same  time  as  that  of  Dean  von  Kleist,  but 
independently. 

Newcomb,  Simon,  vii,  39.  Born  at  Wallace, 
Nova  Scotia,  March  12,  1835;  died  in  1910. 
American  astronomer.  Professor  of  Mathema- 
tics in  the  United  States  Navy  in  1861 ;  in  1884, 
Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy  at 


KEY  AND   INDEX 

Johns  Hopkins  University.  Wrote  popularly 
on  astronomy  and  political  economy. 

Newcomen,  Thomas,  vi,  89.  Born  in  1663; 
died  in  August,  1729.  English  inventor.  He 
invented  (with  Cawley  and  Savery)  the  atmos- 
pheric steam-engine,  which  was  patented  in  1705. 

Newlands,  John  A.  R.,  iv,  67.  Born  in  Eng- 
land, 1838;  died  at  London,  July  29,  1898.  An 
English  chemist.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to 
propound  the  conception  of  the  periodicity 
among  the  chemical  elements.  (See  Mendeleeff.) 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  ii,  236.  Born  at  Wools- 
thorpe,  near  Grantham,  England,  Dec.  25,  1642 
(O.S.);  died  at  Kensington,  March  20,  1727. 
English  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher. 
Discoverer  of  the  law  of  universal  gravitation. 
(See  Vol.  II,  pp.  236-251.) 

Nicholson,  William,  iii,  232.  Born  at  London, 
1753;  died  in  1815.  English  physicist  and  chem- 
ist. He  (with  Carlisle)  decomposed  water  into 
its  elements,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  by  galvan- 
ism in  1800. 

Oersted,  Hans  Christian,  iii,  236.  Born  at 
Rudkjobing,  Denmark,  Aug.  14,  1777;  died 
March  9,  1851.  A  Danish  physicist.  In  1819  he 
discovered  electro-magnetism  by  passing  a  cur- 
rent of  electricity  through  a  wire  held  parallel 
with,  but  not  quite  touching,  a  suspended  mag- 
netic needle. 

Oken,  Lorenz,  iv,  160.  Born  at  Bolsbach, 
Swabia,  Aug.  I,  1779;  died  at  Zurich,  Aug.  u, 
1861.  German  naturalist  and  natural  philoso- 
pher. In  a  work  published  during  his  profes- 
sorship in  the  University  of  Zurich  he  outlined 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

a  theory  of  spontaneous  generation  and  of  evo- 
lution of  species. 

Olbers,  Heinrich  Wilhelm  Matthias,  iii,  40. 
Born  near  Bremen,  Germany,  1758;  died  at  Bre- 
men, March  2,  1840.  German  physician  and 
astronomer.  He  discovered  several  comets  and 
the  planetoids,  Pallas  and  Vesta,  and  discov- 
ered a  method  of  calculating  cometary  orbits. 

Owen,  Sir  Richard,  iv,  207.  Born  at  Lancas- 
ter, England,  July  20,  1804;  died  at  London, 
Dec.  1 8,  1892.  English  paleontologist  and  com- 
parative anatomist.  From  1836-1856,  he  was 
Hunterian  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physiol- 
ogy in  the  London  College  of  Surgeons.  He 
was  conspicuous  in  the  field  of  microscopy,  and 
in  1833  discovered  the  "Trichina  spiralis"  in  the 
tissues  of  the  human  body. 

Paget,  Sir  James,  iv,  207.  Born  at  Yarmouth, 
England,  Jan.  n,  1714;  died  at  London,  Dec.  30, 
1899.  English  physician  and  surgeon.  He  dis- 
covered the  presence  of  "Trichina  spiralis"  in 
human  muscular  tissue  while  a  student  in  St. 
Bartholomew's  Hospital  in  1833.  At  one  time 
president  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 

Papin,  Denis,  vi,  88.  Born  at  Blois,  France, 
Aug.  22,  1647;  died  in  1712.  French  physicist. 
As  early  as  1688  he  conceived  the  idea  of  ma- 
king use  of  a  piston  working  tightly  in  a  cylin- 
der, and  a  little  later  added  the  idea  of  pro- 
ducing a  vacuum  in  a  cylinder — steps  toward 
the  invention  of  the  steam-engine. 

Paracelsus,  Philippus  Aureolus,  ii,  159.  Born 
at  Switzerland,  Dec.  17,  1493;  died  at  Salzburg, 
Sept.  23,  1541.  German-Swiss  physician  and 
alchemist.  He  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  study 

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KEY  AND  INDEX 

of  pharmaceutical  chemistry  and  the  use  of 
drugs.  It  is  claimed  (upon  doubtful  authority), 
that  he  introduced  the  use  of  opium  and  mer- 
cury in  medicine. 

Pare,  Ambroise,  ii,  181.  Born  at  Laval, 
Mayenne,  France,  1517;  died  at  Paris,  Dec.  22, 
1590.  Celebrated  French  surgeon.  One  of  the 
founders  of  scientific  surgery.  Noted  for  his 
discovery  of  a  rational  method  of  treating  gun- 
shot wounds.  He  introduced  the  use  of  the 
ligature  for  controlling  hemorrhage. 

Parmenides,  i,  114.  Lived  about  the  middle 
of  the  Fifth  Century,  B.C.  Greek  philosopher. 
His  writings  were  held  in  high  esteem  by  both 
Plato  and  Aristotle. 

Parsons,  C.  A.,  vi,  124.  Born  June  13,  1854. 
English  engineer,  inventor  of  the  practical  steam 
turbine  engine.  These  engines  have  been  found 
particularly  effective  for  the  generating  of  elec- 
tricity and  the  propulsion  of  war  and  mercantile 
vessels. 

Pascal,  Blaise,  ii,  122.  Born  at  Clermont- 
Ferrand,  Puy-de-D6me,  June  19,  1623;  died  at 
Paris,  August  19,  1662.  Celebrated  French  phil- 
osopher and  writer.  In  1648  Pascal  suggested 
that  if  the  theory  of  the  pressure  of  the  air 
upon  the  mercury  in  a  Torricellian  barometer 
was  correct,  it  could  be  demonstrated  by  ascend- 
ing a  mountain  with  the  mercury  tube.  As  the 
air  was  known  to  get  progressively  lighter  from 
base  to  summit,  the  height  of  the  column  should 
be  progressively  lessened  as  the  ascent  was 
made,  and  increase  again  on  the  descent  into 
the  denser  air.  This  experiment  was  made 
shortly  after  this  time,  the  rising  and  falling 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

of  the  mercury  proving  the  correctness  of  the 
theory  of  atmospheric  pressure. 

Pasteur,  Louis,  iv,  217.  Born  at  Dole,  Jura, 
France,  Dec.  27,  1822;  died  near  St.  Cloud,  Sept. 
28,  1895.  Celebrated  French  chemist  and  micro- 
scopist.  Noted  for  his  studies  on  fermentation 
and  his  researches  in  bacteria.  Remembered 
particularly  for  his  experiments  with  anthrax 
bacillis  and  the  prevention  of  the  disease  in  do- 
mestic animals  caused  by  this  germ.  Also  for 
his  experiments  and  demonstrations  in  the  pre- 
vention of  hydrophobia  by  inoculation. 

Paul  of  Aegina,  ii,  31.  Born  about  620;  died 
about  the  year  690.  A  Byzantine  physician.  He 
was  one  of  the  Alexandrian  school  of  physicians 
who  was  far  ahead  of  his  time  in  his  knowledge 
of  surgery.  He  discarded  the  prevalent  idea  of 
the  supernatural  cause  of  disease  and  practiced 
his  profession  along  rational  scientific  lines.  He 
performed  many  modern  operations,  among 
others  those  within  the  abdominal  cavity. 

Perraudin,  iii,  145.  A  chamois  hunter,  who 
in  1815  noted  the  markings  of  glaciers  on  the 
rocks  in  the  Alps  and  reached  the  correct  con- 
clusion that  these  scratches  were  caused  by  gla- 
ciers in  former  times.  His  conception  was 
laughed  at  at  first  by  scientists,  but  later  ac- 
cepted as  a  true  explanation  of  what  are  now 
known  as  glacial  scratches. 

Peter  of  Abano,  ii,  36.  Born  in  1250;  died  in 
1315.  A  celebrated  mediaeval  physician  who  ad- 
vocated rational  methods  in  the  treatment  of 
diseases,  maintaining  that  such  diseases  were 
of  natural  rather  than  of  supernatural  causation. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  great  men  produced  by 

[135] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

the  University  of  Padua.  He  is  remembered 
particularly  for  his  teachings  that  the  brain  is 
the  source  of  the  nerves,  and  the  heart  the 
source  of  the  vessels. 

Petrie,  W.  M.  Flinders,  i,  28.  Born  June  30, 
1853.  An  English  Egyptologist  who  has  made 
many  important  discoveries  of  Egyptian  relics 
which  give  clues  to  the  history  of  the  early 
Egyptian  civilization. 

Piazzi,  Giuseppe,  iii,  40.  Born  at  Ponte,  Val- 
tellina,  Italy,  July  16,  1746;  died  at  Naples,  July 
22,  1826.  Italian  astronomer.  On  January  i, 
1801,  observed  an  apparent  star  which  he  sup- 
posed to  be  a  comet.  Later  it  proved  to  be  the 
planet  Ceres,  occupying  a  position  in  space  be- 
tween Mars  and  Jupiter. 

Pickering,  Edward  Charles,  iii,  65.  Born  at 
Boston,  July  19,  1846.  American  astronomer, 
Professor  of  Astronomy  and  Dir.  Harvard 
College  Observatory  since  1876.  Made  exhaust- 
ive study  of  light  and  spectra  of  the  stars.  Made 
over  one  million  measures  of  the  light  of  stars 
with  a  meridian  photometer  invented  by  him. 
Author  of  "Elements  of  Physical  Manipula- 
tion," and  many  papers  on  scientific  subjects. 

Pinel,  Dr.  Philippe,  iv,  245.  Born  at  St.  Andre, 
Tarn,  France,  April  20,  1745;  died  at  Paris,  Oct. 
25,  1826.  French  physician.  In  1795,  at  La 
Saltpetriere,  an  asylum  for  the  care  of  the  in- 
sane, he  struck  off  the  shackles  from  the  inmates 
and  took  the  revolutionary  attitude  of  treating 
them  as  persons  afflicted  by  disease,  not  "pos- 
sessed by  demons." 

Planche,  Gaston,  iii,  246.  French  inventor.  In 
1859  he  invented  the  first  reasonably  satisfac- 

[136] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

tory  storage  battery.  His  battery  was  con- 
structed of  sheets  of  lead  immersed  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid. 

Plato,  i,  1 80.  Born  at  JEg'ma,  429  or  427 
B.C.;  died  at  Athens,  347.  Greek  philosopher. 
He  was  a  great  ethical  teacher,  but  seems  to 
have  had  no  clearly  defined  opinions  as  to  the 
mechanism  of  the  universe;  no  clear  conception 
as  to  the  origin  of  development  of  organic  be- 
ings; no  tangible  ideas  as  to  the  problems  of 
physics;  no  favorite  dreams  as  to  the  nature  of 
matter. 

Playfair,  John,  iii,  131.  Born  at  Ben  vie,  For- 
farshire,  March  10,  1748;  died  at  Edinburgh, 
July  19,  1819.  Scottish  physicist.  One  of  the 
ardent  champions  of  Hutton's  theory  of  con- 
stant changes  taking  place  in  the  earth's  crust. 
With  Lyell,  he  conceived  that  the  changes  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  have  always  been  the 
same  in  degree  as  well  as  in  kind.  Modern 
physicists  do  not  accept  this. 

Pliny  (Caius  Plinius  Secundus),  i,  265.  Born 
at  Como,  Italy,  23  A.D. ;  died  in  the  eruption  of 
Vesuvius,  79  A.D.  Celebrated  Roman  naturalist. 
He  wrote  his  famous  work  on  "Natural  His- 
tory" while  campaigning  as  a  soldier  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  It  is  a  vast  work  in  which 
some  four  thousand  works  are  either  cited  or 
quoted  from.  In  the  history  of  scientific  princi- 
ples it  may  be  virtually  disregarded,  but  it  is 
important  in  the  history  of  the  promulgation  of 
knowledge. 

Polybius,  i,  201.  Born  at  Megalopolis,  Arca- 
dia, Greece,  204  B.C. ;  died  about  125  B.C.  Cele- 
brated Greek  historian.  It  is  through  his  wri- 

[137] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

tings  that  much  of  the  life  work  of  Archimedes 
is  known.  Many  of  the  mechanisms  invented 
by  him  are  also  described. 

Pouchet,  M.  F.  A.,  iv,  180.  A  French  scientist 
who  advocated  the  theory  that  organic  beings 
are  generated  about  us  constantly  in  the  familiar 
processes  of  putrefaction  which  are  known  to  be 
due  to  the  agency  of  microscopic  bacteria.  In 
1862  Louis  Pasteur  proved  that  this  seeming 
spontaneous  generation  is  in  reality  due  to  the 
existence  of  germs  in  the  air. 

Prestwich,  Sir  Joseph,  iii,  101.  Born  at  Clap- 
ham,  London,  March  12,  1812;  died  at  Shore- 
ham,  Kent,  June  23,  1895.  Noted  English  geol- 
ogist. With  Mr.  (afterward  Sir  John)  Evans  he 
made  important  excavations  and  investigations 
of  fossil  remains  and  prehistoric  implements 
found  at  Abbeville  and  other  places  in  1859. 
His  discoveries  helped  to  establish  the  correct- 
ness of  the  theory  of  evolution. 

Priestley,  Joseph,  iv,  20.  Born  near  Leeds, 
Yorkshire,  March  13,  1733;  died  at  Northumber- 
berland,  Pa.,  Feb.  6,  1804.  Celebrated  English 
clergyman  and  natural  philosopher.  Noted  for 
his  general  experiments  with  gases,  and  in  par- 
ticular for  his  discovery  of  oxygen.  He  wrote 
a  "History  of  Electricity"  at  the  suggestion  of 
Benjamin  Franklin. 

Proust,  Louis  Joseph,  iv,  41.  Born  at  Angers, 
1755;  died  in  1826.  French  chemist.  His  work 
led  to  the  establishment  of  the  principle  that 
chemical  compounds  are  of  fixed  proportions, 
however  prepared. 

Ptolemy  (Claudius  Ptolemaeus),  i,  267.  Born 
at  Alexandria;  died  first  half  of  Second  Cen- 

[138] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

tury,  A.D.  Astronomer,  geographer,  and  math- 
ematician. The  last  great  astronomer  of  anti- 
quity. His  mathematical  system  of  astronomy 
was  accepted  for  several  centuries  until  finally 
displaced  by  the  system  of  Copernicus. 

Pythagoras,  i,  112.  Born  at  Samos,  Greece, 
about  582  B.C.;  died  at  Metapontum,  Magna 
Grsecia,  about  500  B.C.  Famous  Greek  philoso- 
pher and  mathematician.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  advocate  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere. 

Ramon  y  Cajal,  Dr.  Santiago,  iv,  283.  Born 
at  Petitte  de  Aragon,  Spain,  1852.  Spanish  phy- 
sician and  histologist.  Professor  of  Histol- 
ogy in  Barcelona  and  Madrid.  Received  one  of 
the  Nobel  prizes,  1906. 

Ramsay,  Sir  William,  v,  86.  Born  at  Glas- 
gow, Oct.  2,  1852.  Scotch  chemist.  In  1894 
(with  Lord  Rayleigh)  he  discovered  argon.  He 
isolated  helium,  krypton,  neon,  and  xenon.  In 
1896  he  published  "The  Gases  of  the  Atmos- 
phere and  the  History  of  their  Discovery." 

Rawlinson,  Canon,  i,  82.  Born  at  Chadling- 
ton,  Oxfordshire,  Nov.  23,  1812;  died  at  Can- 
terbury, Oct.  6,  1902.  English  theologian,  his- 
torian, and  Orientalist.  His  histories  of  the 
ancient  Oriental  peoples  have  thrown  much  light 
on  the  scientific  knowledge  of  their  time. 

Rawlinson,  Sir  Henry,  iv,  229;  v,  9.  Born  at 
Chadlington,  Oxfordshire,  April  u,  1810;  died 
at  London,  March  5,  1895.  English  Assyriolo- 
gist.  He  wrote  extensively  on  Assyriology,  giv- 
ing a  clear  insight  into  the  status  of  science 
among  the  Assyrians  and  Chaldeans. 

Rayleigh,  Lord,  v,  86.  Born  Nov.  12,  1842. 
English  physicist  For  eleven  years  he  was  sec- 

[139] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

retary  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  was  associated 
with  Prof.  William  Ramsay  in  the  discovery  of 
the  new  gas,  argon,  which  forms  approximately 
i  per  cent  of  the  atmosphere. 

Reamur,  Rene,  iv,  88.  Born  at  La  Rochelle, 
France,  Feb.  28,  1683;  died  at  Bermondiere, 
Maine,  France,  Oct.  18,  1757.  French  naturalist 
and  physicist.  He  discovered  the  method  of 
making  the  porcelain  named  for  him  and  in- 
vented the  Reamur  thermometer.  In  the  scale 
of  this  thermometer  there  are  80  degrees  be- 
tween the  freezing-point  and  the  boiling-point 
of  water. 

Rhazes,  Arabian  physician,  ii,  24.  Born  at  Raj, 
Persia,  about  850;  died  about  932.  An  Arabian 
physician,  philosopher  and  musician.  He  intro- 
duced the  use  of  mercurial  ointment,  sulphuric 
and  nitric  acid,  in  therapeutics.  He  is  credited 
with  being  the  first  physician  to  describe  small- 
pox and  measles  accurately. 

Roentgen,  Professor  Wilhelm  Conrad,  iii,  248. 
Born  at  Leinnep,  Prussia,  March  27,  1845.  Ger- 
man physicist.  He  has  made  several  important 
discoveries,  but  the  importance  of  these  is  com- 
pletely overshadowed  by  his  discovery,  in  1896, 
of  the  Roentgen  rays,  or  X-rays.  For  this  dis- 
covery he  was  awarded  the  Nobel  prize  in  1901. 

Rouge,  Olivier  Charles  de,  i,  27.  Born  at 
Paris,  April  n,  1811 ;  died  at  Chateau  Bois-Dau- 
phin,  Dec.  31,  1872.  Celebrated  French  Egypt- 
ologist. Remembered  particularly  for  his  dis- 
covery of  the  prototypes  of  the  Semitic  alphabet 
in  the  early  Egyptian  hieratic. 

Rumford,  Count,  iii,  2o8;v,3O.  Born  at  Woburn, 
Mass.,  March  26,  1753;  died  at  Auteuil,  near 

[  HO] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

Paris,  Aug.  21,  1814.  An  American  scientist. 
As  aide-de-camp  and  chamberlain  at  the  court 
of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  he  reorganized  the 
Bavarian  Army.  His  greatest  discovery,  that 
heat  is  a  form  of  motion,  was  discovered  while 
boring  cannon  for  the  defense  of  Munich. 

Rush,  Dr.  Benjamin,  iv,  245.  Born  near  Phila- 
delphia, Dec.  24,  1745;  died  at  Philadelphia, 
April  19,  1813.  American  physician.  Remem- 
bered in  particular  for  his  attitude  toward  pa- 
tients suffering  from  mental  disorders. 

Rutherford,  Prof.  Ernest,  v,  105.  Born  at 
Nelson,  New  Zealand,  1871.  In  1898,  was  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Physics  in  McGill  Univer- 
sity, Montreal.  He  has  written  extensively  on 
the  conduction  of  electricity  through  gases,  and 
on  radio-activity.  In  1904  he  published  "Radio- 
activity." 

Saint-Hilaire,  Etienne  Geoffrey,  iv,  160.  Born 
at  fitampes,  April  15,  1772;  died  at  Paris,  June 
19,  1844.  Noted  French  zoologist.  He  cham- 
pioned the  theory  of  the  transmutation  of  spe- 
cies against  Cuvier,  but  the  truth  of  his  argu- 
ments was  not  fully  appreciated  until  after  his 
death. 

Santos-Dumont,  Alberto,  vii,  266.  Born  at  San 
Paulo,  Brazil,  July  20,  1873.  Brazilian  aeronaut. 
Experimented  with  balloons  in  1898,  and 
in  that  year  constructed  his  first  dirigible  bal- 
loon. After  building  several  balloons  and  hav- 
ing several  narrow  escapes,  he  finally,  on  Octo- 
ber 19,  1901,  won  the  Henri  Deutsche  prize  of 
100,000  francs  by  flying  from  the  Aero  Club  at 
Saint  Cloud  around  the  Eiffel  Tower  and  back 

[Hi] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

to  the  starting  point  in  a  few  seconds  less  than 
half  an  hour. 

Savery,  Thomas,  vi,  85.  Born  at  Shilstone, 
near  Modbury,  Devonshire,  about  1650;  died  at 
London,  May,  1715.  English  engineer.  He  is 
remembered  particularly  for  his  invention  of  a 
machine  for  raising  water  from  mines  by  means 
of  steam  power.  This  device,  patented  in  1698, 
represented  the  first  application  of  steam  power 
for  mechanical  purposes. 

Scheele,  Karl  William,  iv,  23.  Born  at  Shal- 
sund,  Dec.  2,  1742;  died  at  Koping,  Sweden, 
May,  1786.  A  celebrated  Swedish  chemist.  He 
discovered  oxygen  independently,  and  without 
knowing  that  Priestley  had  already  discovered 
it.  He  also  discovered  many  other  important 
substances,  such  as  arsenic  acid,  lactic  acid,  tar- 
taric  acid,  ammonia,  and  chlorine,  this  last  be- 
ing of  great  value  commercially  for  bleaching. 

Schiaparelli,  Giovanni  Virginio,  iii,  35.  Born 
at  Savigliano,  Italy,  March  4,  1835.  Italian  as- 
tronomer. The  first  to  point  out  that  meteor 
swarms  move  in  the  orbits  of  pre-existing 
comets,  and  are  the  debris  of  comets. 

Schleiden,  Dr.  M.  J.,  iv,  118.  Born  at  Ham- 
burg, April  5,  1804;  died  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  June  23,  1881.  German  botanist.  The 
first  to  demonstrate  the  all-importance  of  cell- 
nucleii  in  the  economy  of  the  cell. 

Schoenlein,  J.  L.,  iv,  208.  A  German  physi- 
cian who,  in  1839,  made  the  discovery  that  fa- 
vus,  a  distressing  disease  of  the  scalp,  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  a  microscopic  vegetable  organ- 
ism. This  was  a  step  toward  the  later  discovery 

[142] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

that  many  other  diseases  are  caused  by  bac- 
teria. 

Schultze,  Max  Johann  Sigismund,  iv,  125. 
Born  at  Freiburg,  Baden,  March  25,  1825;  died 
at  Bonn,  Prussia,  Jan.  16,  1874.  German  anat- 
omist and  biologist.  Remembered  particularly 
for  his  researches  on  protoplasm,  and  his  dem- 
onstrations that  vegetable  protoplasm  and  ani- 
mal sarcode  are  to  all  intents  and  purposes  iden- 
tical. 

Schwann,  Theodor,  iv,  119.  Born  at  Neuss, 
Prussia,  Dec.  7,  1810;  died  at  Cologne,  Jan.  14, 
1882.  Distinguished  physiologist.  He  is  re- 
membered particularly  as  the  founder  of  the 
cell-theory.  He  made  important  investigations 
of  muscular  and  nervous  tissues,  and  was  the 
discoverer  of  pepsin. 

Scrope,  G.  Poulett,  iii,  132.  Born  at  London, 
1797;  died  Jan.  19,  1876.  English  geologist. 
In  1823  he  published  a  classical  work  on  volca- 
noes in  which  he  claimed  that  volcanic  moun- 
tains are  merely  accumulated  masses  of  lava 
belched  forth  from  a  crevice  in  the  earth's  crust. 

Servetus,  Michael,  ii,  168.  Born  at  Tudela, 
Spain,  1511;  burned  at  Geneva,  Oct.  27,  1553. 
Spanish  physician  and  philosopher.  He  dis- 
covered and  described  the  pulmonary  circula- 
tion, and  that  the  fluids  contained  in  veins  and 
arteries  are  the  same.  He  showed  that  the 
blood  is  purified  by  respiration  in  the  lungs,  and 
asserted  that  there  are  vessels  in  the  lungs 
"formed  out  of  vein  and  artery." 

Siemens,  Werner,  vi,  178;  vii,  181.  Born  at 
Lenthe,  near  Hanover,  Dec.  13,  1816;  died  at 
Berlin,  Dec.  6,  1892.  German  inventor  and  man- 

[143] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

ufactui-er.  He  is  noted  for  his  experiments  in 
electricity,  his  work  having  a  direct  effect  in  the 
final  perfecting  of  the  dynamo. 

Siemens,  Sir  William,  vi,  195.  Born  at  Lenthe, 
near  Hanover,  April  4,  1823;  died  at  London, 
Nov.  19,  1883.  German-English  physicist  and 
inventor;  brother  of  Werner  Siemens.  In  1859 
he  became  a  naturalized  British  subject.  He  made 
extensive  researches  in  the  field  of  heat  and  elec- 
tricity. 

Simpson,  Sir  J.  Y.,  iv,  217.  Born  at  Bathgate, 
Scotland,  June  7,  1811;  died  May  6,  1870.  Scot- 
tish physician.  Noted  for  his  introduction  of 
chloroform  as  an  anaesthetic  about  one  year  after 
Morton's  demonstration  of  etherization. 

Singer,  Isaac  M.,  ix,  97.  Born  at  Oswego, 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  27,  1811;  died  at  Torquay,  England, 
July  23,  1875.  American  machinist  and  inventor. 
He  improved  the  sewing-machine,  bringing  it  to 
a  practical  stage  of  perfection. 

Sloane,  Sir  Hans,  v,  4.  Born  at  Killyleagh, 
County  Down,  Ireland,  April  16,  1660;  died  at 
London,  Jan.  n,  1753.  British  physician  and 
naturalist.  Virtually  the  founder  of  the  British 
Museum.  His  collection  of  curios,  which  he 
turned  over  to  the  British  Government  for  a  nom- 
inal sum,  formed  the  nucleus  for  the  present 
museum. 

Smith,  William,  iii,  74.  Born  at  Churchill,  Ox- 
fordshire, England,  March  23,  1769;  died  at 
Northampton,  England,  Aug.  28,  1839.  An  Eng- 
lish surveyor  who  is  known  as  "the  Father  of 
English  Geology"  through  his  studies  of  fossils. 
He  discovered  that  fossils  in  rocks  are  arranged 
in  regular  systems,  and  that  the  order  of  succes- 

[144] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

sion  of  such  groups  of  fossils  is  always  the  same 
in  any  vertical  series  of  strata  in  which  they 
occur. 

Snell  (or  Snellius),  Willebrord,  ii,  119.  Born  at 
Leyden,  1581 ;  died  Oct.  30,  1626.  Dutch  mathe- 
matician. About  the  year  1621,  while  Professor 
of  Mathematics  at  Leyden,  he  discovered  the  law 
of  refraction. 

Spallanzani,  Lazzaro,  iv,  86.  Born  at  Scandi- 
ano  in  Modena,  1729;  died  in  1799.  Remembered 
chiefly  for  his  discoveries  and  investigations  in 
the  biological  sciences.  He  refuted  the  evidence 
of  Needham  that  minute  organisms  form  sponta- 
neously in  solutions  of  meat  in  water  after  boil- 
ing, by  demonstrating  conclusively  that  if  prop- 
erly protected  from  the  atmosphere  no  organism 
will  form.  He  discovered  the  function  of  the 
ovum  and  spermatozoon,  and  demonstrated  that 
digestion  is  a  chemical  process  by  an  ingenious 
use  of  tubes  filled  with  food  introduced  into  the 
stomach. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  iv,  268.  Born  at  Derby,  April 
27,  1820;  died  at  Brighton,  Dec.  8,  1903.  Eng- 
lish philosopher,  founder  of  the  system  known 
as  synthetic  philosophy.  He  studied  engineering 
and  during  1837-46  was  employed  as  a  railway 
engineer.  From  1846  he  devoted  himself  to  lit- 
erary work,  acting  as  sub-editor  of  the  "Econo- 
mist" from  1848  to  1853.  In  1850  he  published 
"Social  Statics";  and  in  1855,  "Principles  of 
Psychology."  He  began  his  "Synthetic  Philoso- 
phy" in  1860,  completing  it  in  1896.  He  was  in 
sympathy  and  closely  in  touch  with  the  work  of 
Darwin  and  Huxley,  and  in  his  writings  he  tried 
"to  express  in  a  sweeping  general  formula  the 

[145] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

belief  in  progress  which  pervaded  his  age."  He 
was  essentially  a  thinker  and  writer,  rather  than 
an  active  worker  in  scientific  fields. 

Spurzheim,  Dr.  Kasper,  iv,  248.  Born  at  Long- 
wich,  near  Treves,  Dec.  31,  1776;  died  at  Boston, 
Nov.  10,  1832.  A  German  phrenologist.  He  was 
a  disciple  of  Gall,  and  wrote  a  physiognomical 
system  with  him.  He  wrote  also  on  philosophy 
and  anatomy. 

Stahl,  George  Ernst,  iv,  6,  185.  Born  at  Aus- 
pach,  1660;  died  at  Berlin,  1734.  German  physi- 
cian and  chemist.  Famous  as  the  author  of  the 
phlogiston  theory  (q.v.).  Champion  of  the 
"Animist"  theory  in  medicine. 

Stephenson,  George,  vi,  114;  vii,  124.  Born  at 
Wylam,  near  Newcastle,  June  9,  1781 ;  died  near 
Chesterfield,  Aug.  12,  1848.  English  inventor, 
the  perfecter  of  the  locomotive.  As  early  as  1814 
he  constructed  a  locomotive  that  could  propel 
itself  along  the  rails,  and  in  1825  a  locomotive 
made  by  him  actually  hauled  a  train  of  cars  with 
passengers.  His  locomotive  "Rocket,"  made  in 
1829,  however,  is  the  prototype  of  modern  loco- 
motives. 

Stevinus,  Simon,  ii,  102.  Born  at  Bruges,  1548; 
died  at  The  Hague  (on  Leyden),  1620.  Cele- 
brated Dutch  mathematician.  About  1600  he  in- 
vented a  carriage  propelled  by  sails,  in  which  he 
carried  the  Prince  of  Orange  and  six  other  pas- 
sengers at  a  speed  said  to  have  been  much  faster 
than  that  of  horses.  In  the  history  of  science  he 
is  remembered  as  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
science  of  dynamics  and  the  science  of  statics. 

Strabo,  i,  255.  Born  at  Amasia,  Pontus,  about 
63  B.C.;  died  about  24  A.D.  Celebrated  Greek 

[146] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

geographer.  Through  his  writings  a  good  idea 
of  the  status  of  the  sciences  in  his  day  is  gained. 
He  considered  the  earth  a  globe,  and  had  a  very 
definite  idea  of  its  size.  The  habitable  portion, 
according  to  him,  extended  from  Ireland  to  Cey- 
lon. 

Struve,  F.  G.  W.,  iii,  58.  Born  at  Altona,  Ger- 
many, April  15,  1793;  died  at  St.  Petersburg, 
Nov.  23,  1864.  A  German  Russian  astronomer. 
He  is  remembered  particularly  for  his  researches 
on  double  stars. 

Swammerdam,  John,  ii,  297.  Born  at  Amster- 
dam, Feb.  12,  1637;  died  there  Feb.  15,  1680. 
Dutch  naturalist.  He  was  educated  for  the  min- 
istry, but  turned  to  the  profession  of  medicine. 
Later  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  insects, 
and  his  work  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modern 
science  of  entomology. 

Sydenham,  Thomas,  ii,  189.  Born  in  Dorset- 
shire, England,  1624;  died  at  London,  Decem- 
ber, 1689.  Famous  English  physician.  He  studied 
predisposing  causes  of  diseases,  and  anticipated 
modern  practice  in  his  methods  of  treating  them. 
In  general  terms  his  was  what  might  be  termed 
"rational"  treatment.  He  is  remembered  par- 
ticularly for  his  introduction  of  the  use  of  lauda- 
num. 

Sylvius,  Franz,  ii,  186.  Born  at  Hanan,  Prus- 
sia, 1614;  died  at  Leyden,  1672.  Celebrated  Ger- 
man physician.  He  founded  the  "latrochemical" 
school  of  medicine,  whose  fellows  used  medicines 
and  did  not  accept  the  "humoral"  pathology.  One 
of  the  fissures  in  the  brain  (fissure  of  Sylvius)  is 
named  for  him. 

Symington,  William,  vii,  67.     Born  at  Lead- 

[147] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

hills,  Scotland,  1763;  died  at  London,  March  22, 
1831.  British  engineer  and  inventor.  Studied 
for  the  ministry,  but  later  became  a  civil  engi- 
neer. He  improved  the  steam-engine,  and  in  1802 
he  produced  the  steam  tugboat  "Charlotte  Dun- 
das,"  which  was  practical  commercially. 

Tait,  Professor  P.  G.,  iii,  291;  v,  208.  Born 
April  28,  1831 ;  died  July  4  ,1901.  Scottish  physi- 
cist and  mathematician.  Made  extensive  studies, 
with  Lord  Kelvin,  of  the  vortex  theory  of  mat- 
ter. Was  an  authority  on  quaternions,  and  made 
many  important  investigations  in  heat  and  elec- 
tricity. 

Talbot,  William  Henry  Fox,  i,  71.  Born  Feb. 
n,  1800;  died  at  Laycock  Abbey,  Wiltshire,  Sept. 
17,  1877.  English  antiquary.  He  discovered  a 
process  of  photography  about  the  same  time  as 
did  Daguerre,  and  in  1841  invented  the  calotype 
process.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  decipher  the 
Assyrian  inscriptions  found  at  Nineveh. 

Tesla,  Nikola.  Born  at  Smiljan,  Lika,  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, 1857.  Physicist  and  electrician. 
Came  to  the  United  States  in  1884,  and  later  be- 
came a  naturalized  citizen.  Invented  the  system 
of  alternating  current  power  transmission,  pr.o- 
ularly  known  as  2-phase,  3-phase,  multi-phase, 
and  poly-phase,  in  1888.  Has  been  actively  en- 
gaged in  investigating  wireless  lighting  systems, 
and  wireless  means  of  communication. 

Thales,  i,  103.  Born  at  Miletus,  Asia  Minor, 
about  640  B.C. ;  died  about  546.  Greek  astrono- 
mer, and  philosopher.  He  is  said  to  have  pre- 
dicted an  eclipse  of  the  sun  which  took  place  in 
the  year  585  B.C. 

Theophrastus,  i,  188.  Born  at  Eresus,  Lesbos, 
[148] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

about  372  B.C. ;  died  288  or  287  B.C.  Greek  phi- 
losopher. He  was  a  disciple  of  Aristotle.  Be- 
cause of  his  work  on  botany,  called  "The  Natural 
History  of  Development,"  he  is  called  the  "father 
of  botany." 

Thompson,  Benjamin.   (See  Count  Rumford.) 

Thomson,  Prof.  J.  J.,  v,  92.  Born  near  Man- 
chester, Dec.  1 8,  1856.  English  physicist.  Pro- 
fessor of  Physics,  Royal  Institution,  London, 
since  1905.  Especially  noted  for  his  researches 
in  electricity  and  magnetism,  and  his  exhaustive 
writings  on  these  subjects.  May  be  said  to  be 
the  discoverer  of  the  negative  "electron,"  or  unit 
"corpuscle"  of  electricity. 

Thomson,  Thomas,  iv,  44.  Born  at  Crieff, 
April  12,  1773 ;  died  near  Holy  Loch,  July  2,  1852. 
British  chemist.  He  discovered  a  large  number 
of  chemical  compounds,  such  as  chlorochromic 
and  hyposulphurous  acid,  and  many  salts. 

Thomson,  William.     (See  Lord  Kelvin.) 

Torricelli,  Evangelista,  ii,  120.  Born  at  Pian- 
caldoli,  Italy,  Oct.  15,  1608;  died  at  Florence, 
Oct.  25,  1647.  Italian  mathematician  and  physi- 
cist. He  was  a  friend  of  Galileo,  and  his  succes- 
sor as  professor  at  Florence.  He  is  remembered 
particularly  for  his  invention  of  the  barometer 
in  1643. 

Treviranus,  Gottfried  Reinhold,  iv,  159.  Born 
at  Bremen,  Feb.  4,  1776;  died  Feb.  16,  1837.  Ger- 
man naturalist.  He  was  one  of  the  early  workers 
in  biological  fields,  and  one  of  the  first  to  suggest 
the  name  "biology"  for  that  science. 

Trevithick,  Richard,  vi,  103;  vii,  75.  Born  at 
Cornwall,  England,  April  13,  1771 ;  died  April  22, 
1833.  Engineer  and  inventor  of  the  locomotive. 

[149] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

Constructed  his  first  locomotive  in  1800.  Be- 
tween 1801  and  1803  he  ran  road  locomotives 
about  London,  carrying  passengers.  He  con- 
structed a  high-pressure  threshing  engine  in  1812 
His  plunger  pole  pump,  invented  in  1797,  super- 
seded all  others  for  deep  mining,  and  is  still  in 
use. 

Tuke,  Dr.  William,  iv,  245.  Born  at  York,  in 
1732;  died  in  1822.  English  physician  and  phi- 
lanthropist. Remembered  particularly  for  his 
revolutionary  method  of  caring  for  the  insane, 
freeing  them  from  chains,  and  allowing  them 
greater  liberty  than  heretofore. 

Tycho,  Brahe,  ii,  65.  Born  at  Scandia,  Sweden, 
Dec.  14  (O.S.),  1546;  died  at  Prague,  Bohemia, 
Oct.  24  (N.S.),  IDOL  Celebrated  Danish  astron- 
omer; among  the  most  famous  of  star-gazers.  He 
did  not  accept  the  Copernican  doctrine  in  full, 
regarding  the  earth  as  an  exception  to  the  other 
planets  which  have  the  sun  as  their  center  of 
motion. 

Tyndall,  John,  iv,  175.  Born  at  Leighlin 
Bridge,  Ireland,  Aug.  21,  1820;  died  at  Hasle- 
mere,  Surrey,  Dec.  4,  1893.  Distinguished  Brit- 
ish physicist.  Especially  noted  for  his  popular 
exposition  of  scientific  subjects,  and  for  his  im- 
portant investigations  in  electricity,  heat,  light, 
and  acoustics.  He  devoted  much  time  to  the  in- 
vestigation and  study  of  glaciers,  and  wrote  ex- 
tensively concerning  them.  He  was  an  ardent 
champion  of  the  Darwinian  theory  from  the  time 
of  its  promulgation. 

Van  Helmont,  Jean  Baptista,  ii,  185.  Born  at 
Brussels,  1578;  died  at  Brussels,  Dec.  30,  1644. 
A  Flemish  chemist  and  physician.  He  con- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

structed  a  system  of  medicine  which  had  quite  a 
following  until  after  his  death.  He  coined  and 
first  used  the  word  "gas,"  and  is  said  to  have 
demonstrated  the  necessity  of  using  the  balance 
in  chemistry. 

Vesalius,  Andrew,  ii,  164.  Born  at  Brussels, 
Dec.  31,  1514;  died  in  the  Island  of  Zante,  Oct. 
15,  1564.  Noted  Belgian  physician  and  anato- 
mist. He  is  called  the  "greatest  of  anatomists." 
His  work,  "De  corporis  humani  fabrica,  libri  sep- 
tem"  was  the  first  comprehensive  and  systematic 
work  on  humane  anatomy. 

Virchow,  Rudolf,  iv,  127;  v,  188.  Born  at 
Schivelbein,  Pomerania,  Oct.  13,  1821;  died  at 
Berlin,  Sept.  5,  1902.  Celebrated  German  physi- 
cian, anatomist,  and  anthropologist.  He  was  the 
founder  of  cellular  pathology.  Throughout  his 
life  he  was  active  as  a  teacher,  in  laboratory  work 
and  hospital  clinic.  During  his  later  years  he 
was  also  active  as  a  statesman. 

Volta,  Alessandro,  iii,  230.  Born  at  Como, 
Italy,  Feb.  18,  1745;  died  there  March  5,  1827. 
Celebrated  Italian  physicist.  He  is  famous  for 
his  invention  of  the  voltaic  pile.  This  invention 
furnished  a  method  of  generating  galvanic  elec- 
tricity, and  is  the  direct  prototype  of  modern  gal- 
vanic batteries.  It  was  one  of  the  most  revolu- 
tionary inventions  in  the  field  of  electricity. 
Volta  also  invented  an  electroscope,  electrophore 
and  condenser. 

Von  Baer,  Karl  Ernst,  iv,  122.  Born  at  Estho- 
mia,  Russia,  Feb.  28,  1792;  died  at  Dorpat,  Nov. 
28,  1876.  Celebrated  Russian  naturalist  and  em- 
bryologist.  Von  Baer's-  studies  in  embryology 
were  the  basis  of  Schwann's  discovery  that  "there 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

is  one  universal  principle  of  development  for  the 
elementary  parts  of  organisms,  however  differ- 
ent, and  this  principle  is  the  formation  of  cells." 

Von  Guericke,  Otto,  ii,  211.  Born  at  Magde- 
burg, Prussia,  Nov.  20,  1602;  died  at  Hamburg, 
May  n,  1686.  Celebrated  German  natural  phi- 
losopher. He  invented  the  air-pump  in  1650.  He 
constructed  the  "Magdeburg  hemispheres" — two 
hollow  hemispheres  which,  when  placed  together 
and  exhausted  could  not  be  pulled  apart  by  teams 
of  horses. 

Von  Kleist,  Dean,  ii,  280.  A  physicist  of  Ca- 
min,  Pomerania,  who  in  1745  invented  the  Ley- 
den  jar.  This  discovery  is  sometimes  credited 
to  Musschenbroek,  then  one  of  the  foremost 
teachers  of  Europe;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that 
von  Kleist's  discovery  antedated  Musschen- 
broek's  by  a  few  months. 

Von  Mohl,  Dr.  Hugo,  iv,  123.  Born  at  Stutt- 
gart, Wurtemberg,  April  8,  1805;  died  Tubingen, 
April  i,  1872.  German  botanist.  Noted  for  his 
studies  on  the  cell  contents,  and  for  his  invention 
of  the  word  protoplasm,  to  designate  the  "phys- 
ical basis  of  life." 

Wallace,  Alfred  Russel,  iv,  172.  Born  at  Usk, 
Monmouthshire,  England,  Jan.  8,  122;  English 
naturalist.  On  July  I,  1858,  simultaneously  with 
Darwin,  he  announced  the  theory  of  natural  se- 
lection, although  Darwin's  theory  had  been  an- 
nounced privately  a  year  before. 

Watson,  William,  ii,  284.  An  English  physi- 
cist. He  coined  the  word  "circuit"  as  used  in 
electricity.  In  1747,  in  an  experiment  of  conduct- 
ing a  current  of  electricity  across  London  Bridge, 
using  the  water  of  the  Thames  to  complete  the 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

circuit,  he  discovered  the  superiority  of  wire  over 
chain  as  a  conducting  medium. 

Watt,  James,  iv,  14.  Born  at  Greenock,  Scot- 
land, Jan.  19,  1736;  died  near  Birmingham,  Aug. 
19,  1819.  Celebrated  English  engineer  and 
mechanician,  the  perfecter  of  the  practical  steam 
engine.  Among  his  scientific  achievements  he 
claimed  to  have  first  discovered  the  composition 
of  water.  Englishmen  credit  Cavendish  with  this 
discovery,  but  in  France  Watt's  claim  is  very 
generally  accepted. 

Weber,  E.  H.,  iv,  263.  Born  at  Wittenberg, 
Prussia,  June  24,  1795;  died  at  Leipsic,  Jan.  26, 
1878.  German  physiologist.  After  exhaustive 
experiments  to  test  the  effects  of  various  nervous 
stimuli,  he  reached  conclusions  which  later  Fech- 
ner  christened  "Weber's  fundamental  law  of  psy- 
cho-physics." 

Wedgwood,  Josiah,  iii,  206.  Born  at  Burslem, 
England,  July  12,  1730;  died  near  Newcastle-un- 
der-Lynne,  Jan.  3,  1795.  Celebrated  English 
potter.  Inventor  of  the  clay  pyrometer,  which 
first  enabled  scientists  to  gauge  high  tempera- 
tures accurately. 

Weismann,  August,  iv,  179.  Born  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  Jan.  17,  1834.  Noted  German 
zoologist.  He  promulgated  a  theory  (in  1883) 
which  denies  that  individual  variations  are  trans- 
missible. This  view  antagonizes  the  Lamarckian 
conception  of  acquired  variations,  which  was  gen- 
erally conceded  to  complement  the  Darwinian 
factor  of  natural  selection  in  effecting  the  trans- 
mutation of  species. 

Wells,  Dr.  Horace,  iv,  213.  A  dentist  of  Hart- 
ford, Connecticut,  who  in  1844  administered  ni- 

[153] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

trous  oxide  gas  and  performed  the  operation  of 
extracting  a  tooth  painlessly.  This  was  two  years 
before  Morton  discovered  etherization. 

Wells,  Dr.  W.  C.,  iii,  184.  Born  in  America, 
but  spent  his  life  in  Great  Britain.  In  1816  he 
published  his  "Essay  on  Dew,"  in  which  the  ex- 
planation of  its  formation  was  given,  solving  a 
problem  that  had  long  puzzled  the  philosophers. 

Werner,  Abraham  Gottlob,  iii,  131.  Born  at 
Wehrau,  Upper  Lusatia,  Sept.  25,  1750;  died  at 
Dresden,  June  30,  1817.  German  mineralogist 
and  geologist.  He  propounded  the  "Neptunian 
theory,"  that  "in  the  beginning  all  the  solids  of 
the  earth's  present  crust  were  dissolved  in  the 
heated  waters  of  a  universal  sea." 

Westinghouse,  George,  vii,  142.  Born  at  Cen- 
tral Bridge,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  6,  1846.  American  in- 
ventor. At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  invented  an  air- 
brake, which  he  continued  to  improve  to  meet 
changing  conditions,  a  modification  of  this  first 
brake  being  in  use  almost  universally  on  steam 
and  electric  cars. 

Wheatstone,  Sir  Charles,  vi,  178.  Born  at 
Gloucester,  England,  in  February,  1802;  died  at 
Paris,  Oct.  19,  1875.  English  physicist  and  in- 
ventor. In  1837  he  patented  a  telegraph,  an  in- 
strument that  was  supplanted  by  the  invention  of 
Morse.  He  invented  the  concertina,  the  stereo- 
scope, and  many  improvements  in  the  field  of 
electricity. 

Whitney,  Eli,  ix,  9.  Born  at  Westborough, 
Mass.,  Dec.  8,  1765;  died  at  New  Haven,  Conn., 
Jan.  8,  1825.  The  inventor  of  the  cotton-gin — the 
machine  that  makes  possible  the  handling  and 
subsequent  manufacturing  of  the  great  cotton 

[154] 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

crops  to-day.  Whitney's  machines  were  manu- 
factured by  others  before  he  could  secure  a 
patent.  He  made  a  fortune,  however,  in  manu- 
facturing firearms  at  Whitneyville,  Conn. 

Wilkinson,  Sir  John  Gardner,  i,  27.  Born  at 
Hardendale,  Westmoreland,  Oct.  5,  1797;  died 
Oct.  29,  1875.  English  Egyptologist.  His  wri- 
tings have  furnished  important  information  as  to 
the  status  of  science  among  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians. 

Wiseman,  Richard,  ii,  184.  Born  in  1625;  died 
in  1686.  A  celebrated  English  surgeon.  He  was 
in  the  service  of  all  the  Stuart  kings.  He  was 
first  to  advocate  primary  amputation  in  gunshot 
wounds,  and  to  introduce  the  treatment  of  aneu- 
rism by  compression. 

Wohler,  Friedrich.    (See  Liebig'and  Wohler.) 

Wollaston,  William  Hyde,  iv,  41.  Born  at  East 
Dereham,  Norfolk,  Aug.  6,  1766;  died  at  London, 
Dec.  22,  1828.  Noted  English  physicist  and 
chemist.  He  invented  the  camera  lucida  and 
goniometer,  and  discovered  palladium  and  rho- 
dium. He  also  discovered  the  ultra-violet  rays  in 
the  solar  spectrum. 

Wright,  Orville,  vii,  288.  Born  at  Dayton, 
Ohio,  Aug.  19,  1871.  Inventor  (with  his  brother 
Wilbur),  of  the  aeroplane  flying-machine.  First 
tests  of  flying  machine  made  in  1903,  at  Kitty 
Hawk,  N.  C.  Successful  long  distance  tests  made 
near  Dayton,  Ohio,  1905.  With  his  brother, 
first  demonstrated  that  the  heavier-than-air  fly- 
ing-machine is  a  practical  mechanism. 

Wright,  Wilbur,  vii,  288.  Born  near  Millville, 
Ind.,  April  16,  1867.  Inventor  (with  his  brother 
Orville),  of  the  aeroplane  flying-machine.  Made 

[155] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 

successful  flights  in  1903;  and  long  distance 
flights  in  1905.  In  1908  made  numerous  flights 
in  Europe,  demonstrating  the  practicality 
of  the  heavier-than-air  flying-machine,  while  his 
brother  Orville  was  making  similar  demonstra- 
tions in  the  United  States. 

Wundt,  Wilhelm  Max,  iv,  268.  Born  at  Neck- 
arau,  Baden,  Aug.  16,  1832.  Celebrated  Ger- 
man physiologist  and  psychologist.  In  1878  he 
opened  his  laboratory  of  physiological  psychol- 
ogy at  the  University  of  Leipsic,  and  established 
the  new  psychology  on  a  firm  scientific  basis. 

Xenophanes,  i,  114.  Born  at  Colophon,  Asia 
Minor,  about  570  B.C.;  died  about  480  B.C. 
Greek  philosopher,  founder  of  the  Eleatic  school. 
He  opposed  the  conception  of  an  anthropomor- 
phic god. 

Young,  Thomas,  iii,  218.  Born  at  Milverton, 
Somerset,  England,  June  13,  1773;  died  at  Lon- 
don, May  10,  1829.  Celebrated  physicist,  and 
general  scholar.  His  discovery  of  the  law  of  the 
interference  of  light  was  directly  responsible  for 
the  establishment  of  the  undulatory  theory  of 
light.  His  investigations  of  the  Egyptian  hiero- 
glyphics led  to  their  final  decipherment.  And  his 
theory  of  color-sensation  was  afterward  devel- 
oped by  Helmholtz. 


ENCYCLOP/EDIC  GENERAL  INDEX 


(This  Index  brings  together,  under  one  alphabet,  all  the  impor- 
tant technical  terms  and  the  most  prominent  names  of  men  in  all 
departments  of  science,  theoretical  and  applied.  It  does  not 
ordinarily  define  terms,  nor  does  it  aim  to  give  biographical  data 
except  insofar  as  these  are  necessary  to  make  the  reference  spe- 
cific. Its  purpose  is  to  analyze  the  text  in  a  m  inner  at  once  detail- 
ed and  comprehensive,  with  the  sole  object  cf  guiding  the  reader  to 
the  text  itself.  Nevertheless,  the  references  are  so  phrased  as 
to  convey,  first  and  last,  an  enormous  amount  of  information. 

The  figures  in  heavy  type  refer  to  volumes;  those  in  ordinary 
type  to  pages. 

For  concise  definition  of  terms  see  the  Technical  Index  and 
Glossary;  for  Biographical  data  see  the  Biographical  Index,  both 
in  the  present  volume.) 


ABD-EL-LETIF,  Arabian  physi- 
cian, 2,  21. 

Abel,  Sir  F.,  experiments  with 
cordite  for  obtaining  high 
temperature,  6,  315. 

Abruzzi,  Duke  of,  his  efforts  to 
find  the  pole,  7,  48. 

Absolute  zero,  approach  to  the, 
made  by  liquefying  hydrogen, 
6,  69;  probable  form  of  all 
matter  at,  6,  70;  quest  of,  6, 
72. 

Academia  Naturae  Curiosorum, 
founded  in  Germany,  2,  201. 

Accademia  del  Cimento,  2,  200. 

Acetylene  Gas,  the  introduction 
of,  6,  212  (see  also  Gas, 
illuminating) . 

Adams,  Isaac,  a  printing  press 
invented  by,  8,  122. 

Adams,  John  Couch,  predicted 
the  discovery  of  the  planet 
Neptune,  and  independently 
calculated  its  position,  3,  42; 
discovers  an  error  in  Laplace's 
calculation  about  the  moon, 
3,48. 

Aeroplane  (see  also  Navigating 
the  Air),  the  triumph  of  the, 


Chapter  X,  7,  272;  Langley's 
early  experiments  and  dis- 
coveries, 7,  275;  experiments 
in  soaring,  7,  277;  the  flying 
machine  of  Lilienthal,  7,  279; 
the  flying  machines  of  Maxim 
and  Langley,  7,  283;  Lang- 
ley's  description  of  his  ma- 
chine called  the  "  aerodrome," 
7,  284;  the  practical  flying- 
machine  invented  by  Wilbur 
and  Orville  Wright,  7.  288; 
the  successful  flight  of  Henry 
Farman,  7,  293;  a  series  of 
flights  by  Wilbur  and  Orville 
Wright,  7,  293;  Latham's 
attempt  to  fly  across  the 
English  Channel,  7,  294;  Ble- 
riot's  successful  flight,  7,  294; 
the  remarkable  flight  of 
Charles  R.  Rolls,  7,  294; 
flights  made  by  Orville 
Wright  near  Washington,  and 
at  Berlin  the  same  year,  7, 
295;  Wilbur  Wright's  flight 
up  the  Hudson,  7,  295; 
Paulhan's  successful  flight 
from  London  to  Manchester, 
7,  296;  Curtiss*  flight  from 


[157] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


Albany  to  New  York,  7,  297; 
cross-country  flight  by  of- 
ficers of  the  French  Army,  7, 
298;  Hamilton's  flight  from 
New  York  to  Philadelphia 
and  return,  7,  298;  Brookins' 
altitude  record,  7,  299;  all 
honor  due  the  Wright 
brothers,  7,  300. 

Ae'tius,  Byzantine  physician,  2, 
31. 

Agamemnon,  detailed  by  the 
English  Government  to  lay 
the  first  Atlantic  cable,  8,  34. 

Agassiz,  Louis,  his  development 
of  the  glacial  theory,  3,  147; 
his  famous  Etudes  sur  Us 
Glaciers,  3,  154. 

Age,  Rough  Stone,  6,  8;  Smooth 
or  Polished,  6,9;  Bronze,  6,9; 
Iron,  6,  9;  of  Steam,  6,  15; 
of  Electricity,  6,  15. 

Agriculture,  methods  at  begin- 
ning nineteenth  century  com- 
pared with  those  at  end,  6,  19. 

Air  (see  Atmosphere),  experi- 
ments with,  in  the  seventeenth 
century  4,  6;  liquefied,  6,  45; 
earliest  use  of  as  motive 
power,  6,  62;  properties  of, 
study  by  mechanical  philoso- 
phers, 6,  63. 

Air-pump  invented  by  Von 
Guericke,  2,  211. 

Airy,  Sir  G.  B.,  his  use  of  per- 
manent magnets  to  effect 
compensation  for  deviation  of 
the  compass,  7,  n;  scepti- 
cism regarding  a  transatlan- 
tic cable,  8,  34. 

Albategnius,  astronomer,  2,  15. 

Albucasis,  Arabian  writer  on 
surgery,  2,  25. 

Alchemy,  2,  124;  the  four  ele- 
ments, 2,  129;  "killing"  and 
"reviving"  metals,  2,  130; 
Rosicrucians,  2,  136;  Aurea- 
crucians,  2,  136;  tricks  of 
alchemists,  2,  138;  useful 
discoveries  of  alchemists,  2, 
140. 

Alchemy  and  Astrology — two 
Pseudo  Sciences,  Chapter  VI, 
2,  124. 


Alcmaeon,  the  first  Greek  anat- 
omist, 1,171;  his  explanation 
of  the  sense  of  hearing,  1,  172; 
his  theories  concerning  the 
heart  and  brain,  1,  126. 

Alexandre,  telegraph  of,  8,  9. 

Alexandrian  or  Hellenistic 
Period,  Greek  Science  of  the, 
Chapter  IX,  1,  189. 

Alexandrian  library  not  burned 
by  Arabs,  2,  n. 

Alexandrian  science  adds  a  day 
to  every  fourth  year,  1,  36. 

Alfonso  X.,  Alfonsine  tables,  2, 

J7- 

Alhazen,  Arabian  scientist,  2, 
18;  calculates  height  of  at- 
mosphere, 2,  19. 

Allen,  Richard  N.,  credited  with 
the  invention  of  paper  car 
wheels,  8,  180. 

Almagest  translated  into  Arabic, 
2>9. 

Alphabet,  the  development  of 
the,  Chapter  IV,  1,  86;  in- 
troduction of  letters,  1,  87; 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian  char- 
acters, ibid.;  first  steps  in 
picture-writing,  1,  89;  Egyp- 
tian writing,  1,  90;  Baby- 
lonian writing,  1,  93 ;  achieve- 
ment of,  1,  98;  extension  and 
perfection  of,  1,  101. 

Aluminum,  method  of  produc- 
ing by  the  electrolytic  process, 
6,  300. 

Alyattus,  king  of  the  Lydians, 
1,  103. 

Ame'lineau,  a  student  of  the 
phonetic  value  of  Egyptian 
symbols,  1,  28. 

Amici,  Giovanni,  constructs  a 
reflecting  microscope,  4,  112; 
introduced  the  improved 
microscope,  4,  113. 

Amos  (with  Bright)  devised  a 
self-releasing  brake  for  use  in 
cable-laying,  8,  37. 

Ampere,  Andr6  Marie,  dis- 
covered the  principles  of  the 
science  of  electro-dynamics, 
3,  239;  and  the  law  of  com- 
binations of  volumes,  4,  43 ; 
paved  the  way  for  the  study 


[158] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


of  organic  substances,  4,  55; 
his  experiments  in  electro- 
magnetism,  6,  176. 

Anaesthetics,  use  of,  in  the  dark 
age,  2,  35. 

Anaesthetic  power  of  chloro- 
form and  ether,  4,  217. 

Anatomy  and  physiology  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  Chapter 
IV,  4,  73- 

Anatomy  and  physiology  in  the 
nineteenth  century  V,  4,  102. 

Anaxagoras,  banished  from 
Greece,  1,  141;  his  theories 
about  the  sun  and  the  planets, 
1,  143;  alleged  prediction  of 
the  fall  of  the  famous  meteor 
at  yEgespotomi,  1,  144;  his 
explanation  of  the  origin  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  1,  145;  a 
clear  conception  of  the  idea  of 
universal  gravitation,  1,  146; 
the  first  to  explain  the  phases 
of  the  moon,  1.  147;  his 
theory  of  the  Milky  Way,  1, 
150;  "the  father  of  meteor- 
ology," 1,  151;  his  specula- 
tions concerning  thunder  and 
lightning,  1,  152;  his  idea 
that  fishes  respire  air  through 
their  gills,  "attracting"  it 
through  water,  1,  153;  his 
speculations  as  to  natural 
objects,  1,  154;  he  claimed 
that  every  unit  or  atom  in 
nature  was  unchangeable  and 
indestructible,  1,  155;  the 
distinction  between  molecu- 
lar processes  and  atomic 
processes,  1,  158;  nous,  the 
omnipotent  artificer  of  the 
material  universe,  1,  I«JQ; 
the  most  farseeing  scientific 
imagination  of  pre-Socratic 
antiquity,  1 ,  1 6 1 ;  the  founder 
of  the  atomic  theory,  1,  169; 
he  took  account  of  the  hypo- 
thetical counter-earth  in  his 
explanation  of  the  eclipses, 
1,  216;  conceived  the  idea  of 
universal  gravitation  before 
Newton,  2,  236. 

Anaximander,  inventor  of  the 
sun-dial,  1,  109;  his  concep- 


tion of  the  form  of  the  earth, 

1,  up;    the  first  teacher  of 
organic  evolution,  1,  in. 

Anaximenes,  assisted  in  perfect- 
ing the  sun-dial,  1,  109. 

Animal  kingdom,  new  classifica- 
tion of,  by  Cuvier,  4,  102. 

Animals,  domestic,  man's  use 
of,  in  the  conquest  of  nature, 
6,  59- 

Animists'  system,  theory  of,  4, 
185. 

Anschutz,  his  interest  in  the 
development  of  chrono-pho- 
tography,  8,  250. 

Anthrax,  cause  of,  4,  227,  228; 
sheep  and  cattle  given  im- 
munity from,  at  the  Pasteur 
Institute,  5,  185. 

Anthropology,  problems  in,  6, 
228;  its  position  to-day,  5, 
229. 

Antipater,  his  epigram  showing 
that  windmills  existed  in  the 
time  of  Augustus,  6,  71. 

Anti-rabic  treatment  given  at 
the  Pasteur  Institute,  5,  183. 

Antisepsis,  Lister's  discovery  of, 
4,  229. 

Arabian  hospitals,  2,  26. 

Arabian  learning,   its  subjects, 

2,  13;    mathematics,   2,    14; 
astronomy,  2,  14-17;    optics, 

2,  18;  chemistry,  2,  20;  medi- 
cine, 2,  21. 

Arabian  method  of  earth-meas- 
urement, 2,  14- 

Arabian  numerals,  period  of 
their  invention,  2,  13- 

Arabians,  Mediaeval  Science 
Among  the,  Chapter  II,  2, 

Arabic  translations,  2,  9. 

Arago,  Dominique  Frangois,  a 
convert  to  Fresnel's  wave 
theory,  3,  226;  demonstrated 
that  electricity  not  only  in- 
fluenced a  magnet,  but  ac- 
tually produced  magnetism, 

3,  239;  constructed  a  device 
in  which   a  metal   disk  was 
made  to  revolve  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  current  of  electricity, 
6,  176. 


[159] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


Archir 


Arban,  M.,  his  record  flight  in  a 
balloon,  7,  256. 

Arcadius,  public  windmills  ap- 
peared in  Rome  about  the 
time  of  this  ruler,  6,  71. 

Archaeology,  The  New  Science 
of  Oriental,  Chapter  X,  4, 
287. 

Archer,  Frederick  Scott,  in- 
vented the  collodion  plate,  8, 
230. 

limedes,  invented  many  me- 
chanical contrivances,  1,  197; 
the  Archimedian  screw,  ibid.; 
his  devices  for  the  defence 
of  Syracuse,  1,  198;  his  com- 
bination of  multiple  pulleys, 
1,  200;  his  invention  of  the 
catapult,  1,  201;  his  con- 
trivance for  wrecking  galleys, 
1,  202;  6,  34;  the  mythical 
legend  of  the  burning-glass, 
1,  205;  his  studies  of  the 
properties  of  the  lever,  1,  206; 

his  experiment  with  King  Armature,  see  Dynamo,  6,  173. 
Hiero's  crown,  1,  207;  his  Armature,  ring,  invented  by  the 
demonstrations  of  the  buoy- 
ancy of  water,  1,  208;  the 
problem  of  the  triangle  and 
a  circle,  1,  209;  his  crude 
conception  of  the  idea  of 
logarithms,  1,  210;  his  as- 
sumption about  the  size  of  the 
sun  and  earth,  ibid.,  his  com- 
putation about  the  number  of 
grains  of  sand  that  would  be 
required  to  cover  the  sphere 
of  the  sun's  orbit,  1,  211; 
recorded  laws  of  the  lever, 
realized  possibilities  of,  6, 
30;  classical  remark  regard- 
ing moving  of  world,  6,  31. 

Argand,  Aim6,  his  invention  of 
the  oil  lamp  with  a  circular 


of  his  spherical  figure  of  the 
earth,  1,  183;  a  pathfinder  in 
the  science  of  zoology,  1,  185; 
his  divisions  of  the  verte- 
brates and  invertebrates  are 
accepted  by  every  one  to-day, 
1,  186;  his  classification  of 
blood-bearing  animals  and 
fishes  not  far  afield  from 
modern  divisions,  1,  187; 
considered  manual  toil  de- 
grading, 6,  26. 

Arkwright,  Sir  Richard,  his 
development  of  the  spinning 
frame  marked  the  beginning 
of  the  new  era,  6,21;  his  early 
life,  9,  26;  aided  by  a  Mr. 
Strutt  he  interests  capitalists 
in  his  invention,  9,  27;  capi- 
talists combine  to  defraud 
him  of  his  patents,  9,  28; 
court  decision  finally  rendered 
against  him,  9,  30;  traits  in 
his  character,  9,  31. 


wick,  6,  205. 

Argon,  discovery  of,  5,  85,  86. 

Argus,  the  attack  on,  by  Ful- 
ton's submarine,  7,  101. 

Aristarchus,  of  antiquity,  1, 
218,  220,  221. 

Aristotle,  his  name  a  synonym 
for  Greek  science  a  thousand 
years  after  his  death,  1,  182; 
his  acceptance  of  the  doctrine 


Italian,      Picnotti,      6,      i?< 
re-invented   by   Gramme,    6, 
179. 

Armstrong,  Lord,  his  water 
motor,  6,  121. 

Arnald  of  Villanova,  physician, 
2,  34. 

Artificial  Gems,  9,  327. 

Artificial  Stone,  or  Concrete, 
Chapter  VIII,  9,  182. 

Artificial  Stone,  or  Concrete,  the 
manufacture  of,  9,  182;  con- 
crete blocks,  9,  184:  mixing 
the  materials,  9,  187;  mold- 
ing the  blocks,  9,  189;  utility 
and  beauty,  9,  193;  rein- 
forced concrete  construction, 
9,  195;  advantages  of  rein- 
forced concrete,  9,  197; 
strength  and  durability  ot 
concrete,  9,  201;  the  rein- 
forcing skeleton  of  metal,  9, 
204;  a  modern  building,  9, 
205. 

Arzachel,  "trepidation  of  the 
fixed  stars,"  2,  16. 

Assyria,  Science  of  Babyloma 
and,  Chapter  III,  1,  56. 


[160] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Assyrian  month,  1,  64;  sab- 
batical days,  1,  65. 

Assyrian  scripture,  restoration 
of,  4,  293. 

Assyrio-Babylonian  records,  of 
greater  historical  accuracy 
than  the  Egyptian,  1,  59; 
the  discrepancy  between  the 
Babylonian  and  Egyptian 
years,  1,  65;  tablets  dealing 
with  magic  make  up  a  large 
proportion  of,  1,  70. 

Astrolabe,  invented  by  Joseph 
and  Roderick,  and  Martin  de 
Bohemia,  7,  19. 

Astrologers,  in  Babylon  they 
were  men  of  high  rank  and 
their  office  was  hereditary, 

1,  67;    gave  their  chief  at- 
tention to  the  moon,  1,  68. 

Astrology,  Two  Pseudo  Sciences 
— Alchemy  and,  Chapter  VI, 

2,  124. 

Astrology,  present-day  survival, 


memnon  and  the  Niagara  un- 
dertake to  lay  the  first  cable, 
8,  34;  cable  breaks,  8,  36, 
second  attempt  made  by  the 
same  ships,  8,  38;  cable  again 
breaks,  8,  39;  success  at 
last,  8,  39;  improved  methods 
and  new  cables,  8,  40;  the 
cable  of  '65,  8,  41;  the  Great 
Eastern  pressed  into  service, 
8,  42;  cost  of  gutta-percha 
used  the  most  expensive 
single  item  of  expense,  8,  43 , 
instrumental  aids,  8,  45. 
Atmosphere,  constituents  of, 
6,  89;  pressure  and  weight  of, 
shown  by  Torricelli  and  Boyle, 
6,  65;  Boyle  and  Mariotte's 
law,  6,  66;  pressure  of,  shown 
by  experiment  with  Magde- 
burg spheres,  6,  66;  why 
human  body  can  support 
pressure  of,  6,  67;  use  of  by 
windmills,  6,  68. 


2,144;  predictions  of  Lilly,  2,      Atom,   the  vortex,   speculation 
145,  George  Whartpn,  2,  150;          about,  6,  216;    proof  of  the 
other  alleged  predictions,  2, 
152,  155;  cause  of  the  decline 
of  astrology,  2,  155. 
Astronomer  priests,  their  duty 
was  to  predict  the  rising  of 


the  Nile,  1,  39. 
Astronomy,   The  Successors  of 


existence  of,  5,  217;  its  rela- 
tion to  the  electron,  6,  166. 
Atomic  weights,  4,  64-67;  cu- 
rious relations  between,  of 
various  elements,  4,  66;  their 
relations  with  other  charac- 
teristics, 4,  67. 

Newton  in,  Chapter  I,  3,  3.         Atoms,  affinity  of ,  6,  218;  space 
Astronomy,     The    Progress    of          relations  of,  5,  219. 

Modern,  Chapter  II,  3,  19.  Attic  Period,  Greek  Science  in 

Asurbanipal,    king    of   Assyria,          the   Early,   Chapter  VII,    1, 
his  contribution  of  tablets,  1,          139. 

67 ;  the  great  library  of,  in  the      Aurora  borealis,  the,  Franklin's 
British  Museum,  4,  295.  explanation  of,  3,  173,  Eras- 

Athens,    Post-Socratic    Science          mus  Darwin's  theory  of,  tbtd.; 
at,  Chapter  VIII,  1,  178.  Biot's  theory  of,  3,  174;   sun 

Atherstone,  Dr.,  a  mineralogist          spots  linked  with,  3,  175. 
of    Grahamstown    who    first      Automatic  Couplings,  7,  147. 
suspected  that  stones  found      Automatic    telephone    systems, 


in    South    Africa    were    dia- 
monds,  9,  316. 

Atlantic  Cable,  company  formed 
for  the  laying  of,  8,  33;  suc- 
cess in  a  large  measure  due  to 
Lord  Kelvin,  8,  33;  Sir  G. 
B.  Airy  declared  that  such 
means  of  communication  was 
impossible,  8,  34;  the  Aga- 

[161] 


8,  87. 

Automobile,  the  coming  of  the, 
7,  156;  Cugnot's  automobile, 
"7,  158;  the  automobile  of 
William  Murdoch,  7,  158; 
Trevithick's  automobile,  7, 
159;  the  attitude  of  the  public 
toward  the  steam  automobile 
invented  by  Mr.  Gurney, 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


7,  1 60;  an  extraordinary 
piece  of  legislation,  7,  161; 
real  progress  of  the  automo- 
bile due  to  the  oil  engine,  7, 
163;  scientific  aspects  of 
automobile  racing,  7,  164; 
some  records  made  at  Or- 
mond,  7,  165;  records  made 
by  Oldfield,  7,  166;  com- 
parative speeds  of  various 
vehicles  and  animals,  7,  167; 
a  miraculous  transformation 
of  energy,  7,  170. 

Avenzoar,  Arabian  physician, 
2,  26. 

Averrhoes,  commentator  of  Aris- 
totle, 2,  10,  26. 

Avicenna,  Arabian  "Prince  of 
Physicians,"  2,  24. 

Avogadro,  Amadeo,  4,  43 ;  law 
of,  4,  57. 

Axe,  modified  form  of  lever,  6, 
58. 

BABYLON,  its  fame  at  its  height 
in  the  time  of  Herodotus,  1, 
57;  in  Babylonian  science  we 
have  the  Eastern  mind  at 
its  best,  1,  61. 

Babylonia  and  Assyria,  Scienc 
of,  Chapter  III,  I,  56. 

Babylonian  astronomy,  1,  61, 
62;  adjustment  of  the  calen- 


Bacqueville,  Marquis  de,  his  at- 
tempt at  aerial  flight,  7,  229. 

Bacteria,  discovery  of,  2,  179; 
their  relation  to  fermentation 
and  to  disease,  4,  218. 

Baeyer,  produced  indigo  com- 
mercially, 8,  313. 

Baglivi,  Giorgio,  distinguished 
in  medicine,  4,  182. 

Barlow,  suggested  that  compen- 
sation for  deviation  of  the 
compass  be  effected  by  the 
adjustment  of  bodies  of  iron, 
7,  ii. 

Barnett,  William,  suggested 
compressing  explosive  mix- 
ture in  cylinder  of  gas  engine 
before  exploding  it,  6,  138. 

Barometer,  mercurial,  invented 
by  Torricelli,  2,  122;  statical, 
invented  by  Boyle,  2,  205. 

Bastian,  Professor,  revived  the 
claims  of  Pouchet,  4,  180. 

Bay  of  Naples,  the,  fauna  of, 
5,  124;  abundance  of  mater- 
ial for  biological  study  found 
in,  6,  125;  uses  made  of  speci- 
mens found  in,  in  scientific 
study,  5,  128. 

Bayley,  Dr.,  expert  in  spectro- 


scopy,  5,  83. 
rd.  The 


Beard,  Thomas,  shoemaker  who 
came  on  the  Mayflower,  9,  108. 


dar,  1,  63.  Becquerel,  Alexandre  Edmond, 

Babylonian  medicine,  the  prac-  the  first  to  take  up  specifically 

titioner  of,  occupied  a  posi-  the   matter   of    color-photog- 

tion  of  authority,  1,  75;    his  raphy,  8,  235. 

emoluments  and  penalties,  1,  Becquerel,  M.  Henri,  discovery 


76. 


Babylonian  science,  estimates 
of,  1.  77;  Canon  Rawlinson 
on,  1.  82;  spelled  supersti- 
tion, 1,  85, 

Bachelder,  John,  improves 
Howe's  sewing  machine,  9, 
96. 

Bacon,    Francis,    influence    on 


of  a  radio-active  substance, 
6,  98;  "rays,"  6,  100;  8,  220. 

Beginnings  of  Greek  Science, 
The,  Chapter  V,  1,  103. 

Beginnings  of  Modern  Chemis- 


try, The,  Chapter  II,  4,  n. 
Behring's  discovery  of  tetanus 
and  diphtheria  antitoxine,  4, 
242. 

science,  2,  192;     indirectly  a      Belisarius,   constructed  floating 
founder  of  the  Royal  Society,  mills  upon  the  Tiber,  6,  71. 

Bell,  Prof.  Alexander  Graham, 
made  tests  of  Professor  Trow- 
bridge's  instrument  for  trans- 


2,   201. 

Bacon,  Roger,  2,  44;  his  use  of 
lenses,  2,  45;  supposed  in- 
vention of  gunpowder,  2,  46; 
estimate  of  his  work,  2,  46. 


atlantic    communication,     8, 
50;    invents  a  practical  tele- 


[162] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


phone,  8,  73;  describes  his 
invention,  8,  74;  contro- 
versy with  Gray,  8,  81. 

Bell,  Dr.  (Sir  Charles) ,  discovery 
of  motor  and  sensory  nerves, 
4,  249. 

Bell,  Rev.  Patrick,  his  design  for 
rotary  engine  described.  6,121. 

Bell,  electric,  mechanism  of 
operation,  6,  164. 

Belshazzar,  mythical  king  of 
Babylon  whose  name  was 
probably  confounded  with 
that  of  the  warrior  son  of 
King  Nabpnidus,  8,  106. 

Bensley,  assisted  Koenig  in  the 
practical  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem of  the  cylinder  press,  8, 
123. 

Berlin  Institute  of  Hygiene,  the, 
6,  193-202;  work  of  Pro- 
fessor Koch  in,  5,  194;  work 
of  his  successors  in,  §,  195; 
department  of  bacteriology 
in,  5,  196;  investigations  of 
the  functions  of  the  human 
body  in,  6,  197;  models  in 
the  Museum  of  Hygiene,  6, 
198,  200;  studies  in  problems 
of  ventilation,  6,  200. 

Berlin  Institute  of  Pathology, 
the,  6,  186-193;  study  of 
diseases  in,  6,  187;  studies  of 
organic  action  and  cellular 
activities  in,  6,  188;  Vir- 
chow's  methods  of  teaching 
in,  6,  191,  192. 

Berlin  system  of  sewage-dis- 
posal, the,  6,  199. 

Berliner,  Emil,  invented  what 
is  known  as  a  microphone 
transmitter,  8,  83. 

Bernard,  Claude,  studies  of  the 
ductless  glands,  4,  137;  dis- 
covers that  the  blood  under- 
goes a  change  in  passing 
through  the  liver,  4,  138; 
discovers  that  the  sympathe- 
tic nerves  regulate  the  blood 
supply,  4,  259;  his  discovery 
of  inhibitory  nerves,  4,  261. 
Berosus,  a  Babylonian  historian, 

1,58. 
Berthez,  Paul  Joseph,  champion 


of  the  Vitalists'   system,   4 

Berthollet,  his  refusal  to  accept 
the  atomic  theory,  4,  41. 

Berzelius,  Johan  Jakob,  accepts 
Daltpn's  theory,  4,  41-44; 
his  binary  theory,  4,  53 ;  his 
dualistic  theory,  4,  55;  coined 
the  word  "isomerism,"  4,  62. 

Besnier,  the  flying  machine  of, 
7,  228. 

Bessel,  predicted  the  existence 
of  the  planet  Neptune,  3, 
42 ;  measured  the  parallax  of 
a  star  in  1838,  3,  60. 

Bessemer,  Sir  Henry,  6,  291; 
his  discovery  of  the  process 
of  converting  cast-iron  into 
steel,  6,  292;  the  "Bessemer- 
Mushet"  process  of  making 
steel,  6,  293;  his  costly  ex- 
periments with  the  gyroscope, 
7,  218. 

Bianco,  Signor  Lo,  chief  of  the 
collecting  department  of  the 
Marine  Biological  Laboratory, 

6,  122. 

Bichat,  Marie  Frangois,  studies 
of  the  animal  and  organic 
systems  of  vertebrates,  4, 
107;  his  division  of  anatom- 
ical structures  into  sets  of 
tissues,  4,  108. 

Bicycle,  application  of  lever- 
principle  to,  6,36;  the  devel- 
opment of  the,  7,  154;  the 
earliest  bicycle  introduced  by 
Baron  von  Drais,  7,  154; 
the  treadle-bicycle  invented 
by  Kirkpatrick  MacMillan, 

7,  155;    the  pneumatic   tire 
introduced,  7,  155;  the  safety 
bicycle  7,  156;  its  popularity 
and  its  sudden  abandonment, 
7,  156. 

Biological  Laboratory  at  Naples, 
The  Marine,  Chapter  ¥,6,113. 

"Biology,"  word  coined  inde- 
pendently by  Treviranus  and 
Lamarck,  4,  160. 

Biot,  Jean  Baptiste,  investi- 
gated the  meteor  of  1803,  3, 
1 68;  accounted  for  it  on 
scientific  grounds,  3,  169. 


KEY  AND   INDEX 


Birch,  a  student  of  Egyptian 
writing,  1,  27. 

Birkeland,  Christian,  discoverer 
of  a  method  for  obtaining 
nitrogen  from,  the  air,  6, 
306. 

Black,  Dr.  Joseph,  his  latent 
heat  observations  on  the  sub- 
ject of  precipitation  of  vapor, 

3,  184;     disproved    by    Dr. 
Wells,     3,      185;      continues 
Male's  study  of  the  elasticity 
of   air,    4,    ii ;     discovery   of 
the    properties    of    carbonic- 
acid  gas,  4,  12;    studies  con- 
tinued   by    Cavendish,  ibid.; 
probable  participation  in  the 
development  of  Watt's  ideas, 

6,  94;    his  experiments  with 
balloons,  7,  230. 

Blackett,  his  experiments  with 
steam  locomotives,  7,  123. 

Blackwell,  F.  O.,  quoted  as  to 
the  efficiency  of  the  electric 
motor,  6,  262. 

Blaew,  William,  printing  press 
improved  by,  8,  122. 

Blake,  Dr.  Clarence  J.,  sug- 
gested the  use  of  the  human 
ear  itself  as  a  phonautograph, 
8.  79. 

Blake,  Francis,  inventor  of  a 
telephone  transmitter,  8,  84. 

Blanchard,  Jean-Pierre,  his  at- 
tempt to  produce  a  dirigible 
balloon,  7,  238. 

Blanquart,  glass  negatives  im- 
proved by,  8,  229. 

Blast-furnace,  6,  284;  old  and 
new  types  of,  6,  285. 

B16riot,  Louis,  his  successful 
flight  across  the  English  Chan- 
nel, 7,  294. 

Blood  corpuscles,  functions  of, 

4,  135;  important  r61e  played 
by,  4,  136. 

Boats,  the  use  of  sails  for  pro- 
pelling, 7,  56;  steering  with 
oars,  7,  56;  the  invention  of 
the  rudder,  7,  56;  type  of 
boats  used  by  the  Greeks,  7, 
57;  vessels  of  the  Romans, 

7,  57;    boats  constructed  by 
the  Norsemen,  7,   58;  medi- 


aeval ships,  7,  59;  modern 
sailing  ships,  7,  60;  early 
attempts  to  invent  a  steam- 
boat, 7,  63;  Fulton's  Cler- 
mont,  7,  64;  screw-propeller 
boat  invented  by  Stevens,  7, 
68;  sea-going  steamships,  7, 
73;  ships  built  of  iron  and 
steel,  7,  74;  the  use  of  turbine 
engines  on  boats,  7,  82;  the 
adoption  of  liquid  fuel  on 
boats,  7,  90. 

Boerhaave,  Hermann,  fame  of, 
4,  182;  his  classification  of 
the  different  branches  of 
medicine,  4,  183;  his  doc- 
trines arranged  into  a  "sys- 
tem" by  Hoffmann,  4,  184. 

Bolton,  one  of  the  inventors  of 
the  collodion-emulsion  pro- 
cess, 8,  231. 

Bond,  W.  C.,  discoverer  of  the 
inner  or  crape  ring  of  Saturn, 
3,44- 

Books,  preservation  of  ancient, 
2,  6;  comparative  number  of, 
issued  in  the  age  of  Pericles, 

Boo'kbinding,  the  development 
of,  8,  153. 

Borelli,  "On  the  Motive  of 
Animals,"  2,  188. 

Boscovich,  Roger  Joseph,  the 
ultimate  constitution  of  mat- 
ter as  conceived  by,  3,  293. 

Bose,  George  Matthias,  inven- 
tor of  an  electric  machine,  2, 
274;  explanation  of  aurora 
borealis,  2,  277. 

Botta,  his  excavations  at  the 
site  of  old  Nineveh  first 
brought  tablet  books  to  the 
eye  of  modern  scholarship, 
8,  103. 

Boulevard  Pasteur,  the,  6,  179. 

Boulton,  Matthew,  associated 
with  Watt  to  found  the  most 
famous  of  early  steam-engine 
companies,  6,  100. 

Bourseul,  Charles,  suggests  an 
electrical  telephone,  8,  71. 

Bowden,  H.  L.,  the  automobile 
record  established  by,  in 
1905,  7,  164. 


[i64] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Boyle,  Robert,  2,  204;  experi- 
ments on  air,  2,  205;  calcula- 
tion of  atmospheric  pressure, 
2,  206;  6,  65;  views  on 
color,  2,  208;  work  in  elec- 
tricity, 2,  209;  his  theories 
as  to  the  composition  of  the 
atmosphere,  4,  4-6. 

Boyle's  law,  developed  indepen- 
dently by  Mariotte,  6,  66. 

Bradley,  Dr.  James,  discovers 
the  libratory  motion  of  the 
earth's  axis,  3,  12. 

Bradley,  in  association  with 
Lovejoy,  conducted  experi- 
ments at  Niagara  Falls  de- 
signed to  extract  nitrogen 
from  the  air,  6,  306. 

Brahe,  Tycho,  a  celebrated 
astronomer  who  declined  to 
accept  the  heliocentric  idea 
concerning  the  earth,  1,  217. 

Braid,  Dr.  James,  investiga- 
tion of  the  phenomena  of 
hypnotism,  4,  269. 

Brain,  studies  of  the,  4,  245-249, 
270—286;  localization  of  cen- 
tres, 4,  272-274;  minute 
structures  of  the,  4,  276-286. 

Branca,  Giovanni,  first  to  pro- 
pose turbine  engine,  6,  87. 

Branly,  Dr.,  invented  a  "coher- 
er ' '  for  detecting  the  presence 
of  Hertzian  waves,  8,  52. 

Brennan,  Louis,  his  invention 
of  the  gyrocar,  7,  195. 

Brett,  John  W.,  his  connection 
with  the  laying  of  the  Atlantic 
cable,  8,  30. 

Brewster,  Dr.  David,  sugges- 
tions to  improve  the  micro- 
scope, 4,  no. 

Bright,  Sir  Charles,  his  con- 
nection with  the  laying  of 
the  Atlantic  cable,  8,  30. 

Britannia,  the  first  steamer  of 
the  Cunard  Line,  7,  74. 

British  Museum,  The,  Chapter 
I-  6,  3. 

British  museum,  the,  founding 
of,  6,  3;  Sloan's  collection 
purchased  for,  6,  4;  acquisi- 
tion of  Hamilton's  treasures 
for,  6,  5;  Egyptian  antiqui- 


ties for,  ibid,;  erection  of 
present  building,  6,  6;  statue 
of  Darwin  in,  6,  9;  arrange- 
ment of  specimens  in,  6,  10, 
ii,  public  interest  in,  6,  12. 

Broca,  Dr.  Paul,  and  localiza- 
tion of  speech,  4,  272. 

Bronze  Age,  advance  of  civili- 
zation in,  6,  9. 

Brookins,  W.  H.,  altitude  record 
made  by,  7,  299. 

Brown,  Robert,  discovery  of  the 
nuclei  of  plant  cells,  4,  115. 

Brown,  Samuel,  introduced  a 
vacuum  gas  engine  for  rais- 
ing water  by  atmospheric 
pressure,  6,  135. 

Bruce,  Robert,  his  traditional 
perseverance  compared  to 
that  of  the  heroes  who  laid 
the  Atlantic  cable,  8,  30. 

Brugsch,  an  Egyptologist,  1,  28. 

"Brunonian"  system,  4,  187. 

Brunton,  the  remarkable  loco- 
motive constructed  by,  7, 
123. 

Brush,  Charles  P.,  his  invention 
1  of  an  arc  light,  6,  226. 

Buckett,  introduced  a  gas  en- 
gine based  on  Cayley's  in- 
vention, 6,  133. 

Buffon  and  the  transmutation 
of  species,  4,  149. 

Bull  (in  connection  with  Trevi- 
thick)  made  direct-acting 
pumping  engines  with  an 
inverted  cylinder,  fixed  in 
line  with  the  pump  rod,  and 
actually  dispensing  with  the 
beam,  6,  113. 

Bunsen,  with  Kirchhoff,  per- 
fected the  spectroscope,  4,  69. 

Burnham,  S.  W.,  discovers  one 
thousand  new  clusters  of  stars, 
3,  59- 

Burrows,  Stephen,  credited  with 
the  discovery  that  the  mag- 
netized needle  shifts  its  direc- 
tion, 7,  0- 

Bushnell,  David,  first  practical 
submarine  boat  made  by,  7, 

94- 

Butler,  quoted  as  to  the  strength 
of  a  web  of  heavy  paper 


[165] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


when  superheated  and  then 
cooled  on  the  dryers,  8,  170. 

CABLE  Systems,  7,  177- 
Calcium  carbide,  method  of  its 

manufacture  at  Niagara  Falls, 

6,  214. 
Callixenos  describes  a  ship  said 

to  have  been  used  by  Ptolemy 

Philopater,  7,  57. 
Calmette,     discoverer     of     the 

serum  treatment  for  serpent- 


poisoning,  6,  184. 
Calotype  process,  invented  by 


Talbot,   8,  227. 
Calvin  withholds  the  document 


of  Servetus,  2,  168 

Candle,  tallow,  invented  in  the 
twelfth  century,  6,  203. 

Canton,  John,  produces  both 
positive  and  negative  elec- 
tricity on  the  same  substance, 
2,  295. 

Carbonic-acid  gas  liquefied,  6,40. 

Carcel,  his  improvement  of 
Quinquet's  oil  lamp,  6,  205. 

Carlisle,  discovered  that  a  gal- 
vanic current  would  decom- 
pose chemicals  in  solution, 
8,  ii. 

Carmania,  equipped  with  tur- 
bine engines  in  a  test  for  speed 
with  the  Caronia,  equipped 
with  reciprocating  engines, 
proved  herself  the  better  boat, 
7,82. 

Carnegie,  an  American  ship 
constructed  for  the  purpose 
of  making  accurate  charts  of 
the  lines  of  magnetic  declina- 
tion in  various  parts  of  the 
globe,  7,  12. 

Carnot,  Sadi,  demonstrated  that 
a  definite  quantity  of  work 
could  be  transformed  into  a 
definite  quantity  of  heat,  3, 
255;  worked  out  general 
theory  of  the  heat  engine,  6, 
IIS- 

Caro,  associated  with  Frank  in 
process  for  fixation  of  nitro- 
gen,  6,  309. 

Caronia,  equipped  with  recipro- 
cating engines  for  a  test 


against  the  Carmania 
equipped  with  turbine  en- 
gines, 7,  82. 

Carpenter,  William  B.,  studies 
in  embryology,  4,  122. 

Cartwright,  Dr.  Edmund,  clergy- 
man of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  inventor  of  the 
power-loom,  9,  44;  as  poet 
and  preacher,  9,  44 ;  as  inven- 
tor of  the  power-loom,  and 
other  useful  devices,  9,  45. 

Carre,  his  invention  of  carbons 
for  arc  lights,  6,  227. 

Cassini,    Dominic,   a  celebrated 


French  astronomer,  3,  13. 

Cataro,  Galeazzo,  records  the 
building  of  the  first  chimney  in 
a  house  in  Rome  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  9,  150. 

Cathode  rays,  Sir  William 
Crookes  experiments  with,  3, 
249 ;  Professor  Roentgen's  dis- 
covery of  the  remarkable 
effects  of,  3,  251-252. 

Cattle-raising,  methods  at  be- 
ginning nineteenth  century 
compared  with  those  at  end, 

6,  20. 

Caus,  Solomon  de,  makes  prac- 
tical application  of  della 
Porta's  idea  for  pumping  by 
steam,  6,  83. 

Cavallo,  Tiberius,  demonstrated 
the  possibility  of  making  toy 
balloons,  7,  230. 

Cave-dwellers,  the,  9,  134. 

Cavendish,  Henry,  continued 
Black's  studies,  4,  13;  dis- 
covery that  water  is  formed 
by  the  combination  of  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen,  4,  14;  con- 
troversy with  Watt,  ibid.,  ex- 
periments with  air,  4,  16; 
discovery  of  nitrous  acid,  4, 
17;  discovery  of  hydrogen 
gas  and  its  'effect  upon  aero- 
nautics, 7,  230. 

Cawley,  John,  English  plumber 
and  glazier  associated  with 
Newcomen  in  patenting  at- 
mospheric engine,  6,  89. 

Cayley,  Sir  G.,  gas  engine  motor 
invented  by,  6,  132. 

[166] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


"Cedar  of  Lebanon,"  the,  4, 
292. 

Ceilings  of  ancient  dwellings,  9, 
154- 

Celestine  III.,  Pope,  decided 
that  tithes  of  the  mediaeval 
wind-mills  belonged  to  the 
clergy,  6,  69. 

Cell  contents,  studies  in,  by  Von 
Mohl,  4,  123;  observed  by 
Corti  in  1774,  4,  124;  redis- 
covered by  Treviranus  in  1807, 
ibid.;  filled  with  fluid  called 
"sarcode,"  4,  124. 

Cell  theory,  Schwann  and  Schlei- 
den  and  the,  4,  118-122 ;  fore- 
shadowed by  Wolff  and  Trev- 
iranus, 4,  122;  elaborated,  4, 
122-128. 

Cell,  voltaic,  6,  163 ;  action  of,  6, 
163. 

Cell  walls  of  vegetables,  Payen 
and,  4,  124. 

Cellini,  Benvenuto,  records  an 
attempt  to  poison  him  by 
diamond  dust  in  his  salad,  9, 
296. 

Cells,  essential  structure  of 
living  organism,  4,  129;  prin- 
ciples of  mechanical  con- 
struction of,  5,  225. 

Celsus,  Cornelius,  his  manu- 
script found  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  2,  40. 

Centrosome,  discovered  by  Van 
Beneden,  6,  226. 

Chabas,  a  student  of  Egyptology, 
1,  28. 

Chaldean,  a  name  once  synony- 
mous with  magician,  1,  66. 

Chaldean  magic,  tablets  relating 
to,  1,  70;  symbolism  of  the 
black  and  white  cloth,  1,  71; 
song  of  the  seven  spirits,  1, 
72 ;  exorcisms  to  ward  off  dis- 
ease, 1,  73;  birth  portents, 
ibid.;  omens  furnished  by 
dogs,  1,  74. 

Chambers,  Robert,  his  Vestiges 
of  the  Natural  History  of  Crea- 
tion, 4,  161;  quotation  from, 
4,  162-164. 

Champollion,  Jean  Franqois,  a 
famous  student  of  the  science 


of  Egyptology,  1,  27;  de- 
cipherment of  the  Rosetta 
Stone,  4,  290. 

Chandler,  Professor,  his  address 
before  the  "  Society  of  Elec- 
tro-Chemistry," 6,  298. 

Chapman,  the  cable  road  of,  7, 
123. 

Charcot,  Dr.,  on  the  phenomena 
of  hypnotism,  4,  269. 

Charles  II.,  his  attempt  to  change 
the  fashion  of  his  time,  9,  62. 

Charles  V.  accepted  cotton  gar- 
ments made  by  the  Aztecs  as 
gifts  suitable  for  the  monarch, 
9,  7- 

Charlotte  Dundas,  constructed 
by  Symington  to  be  used  as 
a  towing  vessel,  7,  67. 

Charms  and  incantations,  1,  46- 
51;  effect  of  a  lock  of  hair  or 
nail  parings  incorporated  in 
a  waxen  figure,  1,  46;  the 
magical  spell  of  enemies  the 
source  of  all  human  ailments, 
1,47;  efficacy  of  a  beetle  as  a 
medicinal  agent,  1,  48. 

Charpentier,  the  secret  of  his 
superior  pottery,  9,  232. 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  a  chance 
reference  in  a  poem  proves 
that  the  points  of  the  compass 
had  been  established  before 
his  day,  7,  9. 

Chemical  affinity,  4,  57-64; 
theory  of  digestion,  4,  88. 

Chemistry,  the  phlogiston  theory 
in,  4,  3-10;  at  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  4, 
1 1 ;  Lavoisier  and  the  found- 
ation of  modern,  4,  28;  since 
the  time  of  Dalton,  4,  38-72; 
organic,  4,  53-56;  foremost 
workers  in,  4,  55. 

Chemistry  Since  the  Time  of 
Dalton,  Chapter  III,  4,  38. 

Chemistry,  The  Beginnings  of 
Modern,  Chapter  II,  4,  n. 

Chemistry,  The  Phlogiston 
Theory  in,  Chapter  I,  4,  3. 

Charon,  M.  Andr6,  three-lens 
camera  devised  by,  8,  240; 
process  of  color-photography 
improved  by,  8,  240. 


[167] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


Chicken  cholera,   Pasteur's  ex- 
periments with,  4,  232. 
Chimneys,  the  first,  9,  151. 
China,  the  making  of,  9,  260. 
Chisel,  modified  form  of  lever, 

Chloroform,  pain-dispelling 
power  of,  discovered  by  Simp- 
son, 4,  217. 

Cholera,  researches  in  the  pre- 
vention and  cure  of,  6,  184. 

Choke  Damp,  in  mines,  6,  248. 

Christian  medical  science,  2, 
29. 

Christy,  Henry,  his  discovery  in 
the  caves  of  Dordogne,  3, 
104;  presumptive  evidence 
that  man  and  the  mammoth 
had  been  contemporaries,  3, 
105. 

Chromosomes,  the  study  of,  6, 
133;  Professor  Weismann's 
theory  of  heredity  based  on, 
5,  134. 

Chronometer,  perfecting  the,  7, 
23;  finding  the  time  without 
a  chronometer,  7,  28. 

Chrono-photography  —  Moving 
Pictures,  the  development  of, 
8,  248. 

Chrysostom,  Saint  John,  his 
silence  regarding  windmills 
makes  it  doubtful  whether 
they  existed  in  his  day,  6,  68. 

"Circuit,"  electrical  term  coined 
by  Watson,  2,  285. 

City  of  Paris  (now  the  Phila- 
delphia) one  of  the  first  twin- 
screw  boats,  7,  81. 

Civilization,  primitive  man's 
struggles  toward,  9,  1-4. 

Clamond,  his  invention  of  the 
gas  mantle,  6,  209. 

Claremont,  Leopold,  describes 
the  process  of  diamond-cut- 
ting, 9,  306. 

Clark,  Alvan,  discovered  the 
dark  companion  of  Sirius,  3, 
66. 

Clarke,  W.  B.,  his  name  inti- 
mately connected  with  the 
early  efforts  at  utilization  of 
magneto-electric  power,  6, 
178;  an  interesting  use  of 


the  electric  pump  associated 
with  the  telephone  in  connec- 
tion with  mining,  noted  by, 
6,  266. 

Classical  Science,  A  Retrospec- 
tive Glance  at,  Chapter  XI, 
1  (i.e.,  vol.  I),  285. 

Clausius,  Rudolf  Julius  Emanuel, 
has  a  part  in  perfecting  theory 
of  steam-engine,  6,  115. 

Claussen,  Peter,  inventor  of  the 
circular  knitting  machine,  9, 
56. 

Clayton,  Rev.  Joseph,  made 
experiments  in  the  distilla- 
tion of  coal,  producing  a  gas 
that  was  inflammable,  6, 
207. 

Clerk-Maxwell,  J.,  he  charac- 
terized the  rings  of  Saturn  as  a 
"shower  of  brickbats,"  3,  441 
thought  they  must  consist  of 
disconnected  particles,  3,  45; 
advanced  the  idea  that  light 
waves  were  really  electro- 
magnetic waves,  3,  247;  6, 
154;  believed  that  electricity 
and  magnetism  were  various 
conditions  of  stress  and  mo- 
tion in  the  ethereal  medium, 
3,  280;  all  interstellar  space 
filled  with  ether,  3,  283;  his 
study  of  the  kinetic  theory  of 
gases,  3,  295;  his  investiga- 
tion of  the  subject  of  molecu- 
lar dynamics,  3,  297;  his  cal- 
culations of  the  distance  tra- 
versed by  molecules  between 
collisions  in  ordinary  air,  3, 
298;  his  attempts  to  perfect 
the  process  of  color-printing, 
8,  212;  his  experiments  in 
color-photography,  8,  237. 

Clermont,  invented  by  Fulton, 
7,7i;  account  of  its  first  pas- 
sage up  the  Hudson,  7,  72. 

Clock,  pendulum,  invented  by 
Huygens,  2,  219;  marine,  in- 
vented by  Harrison,  2,  257. 

Clothing  the  Extremities,  Chap- 
ter V,  9,  103. 

Clothing  the  Extremities,  cus- 
tom of  wearing  shoes  by  prim- 
itive man  as  protection 


[168] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


against  cold,  9,  103;  the 
shoes  of  ancient  people,  9, 
105 ;  fantastic  foot-gear  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  9,  107;  the 
rise  of  the  modern  shoe 
industry,  9,  108;  Thomas 
Beard,  shoemaker  who  came 
on  the  Mayflower,  9,  108; 
Philip  Kertland  established  a 
shoe  manufactory  at  Lynn,  in 
1636,  9,  108;  Massachusetts 
the  center  of  shoe  industry 
during  the  Revolutionary 
War,  9,  109;  early  methods 
of  shoe  manufacture,  9,  no; 
the  wooden  shoe  peg  invented, 
1811,  9,  no;  application  of 
machinery  to  shoe-making,  9, 
112;  the  introduction  of  the 
McKay  sewing-machine,  9, 
112;  introduction  of  the 
Goodyear  heeling  machine,  9, 
113;  lasts  and  patterns,  9, 
117;  actual  process  of  shoe- 
making  in  factories  at  the 
present  time,  9,  119;  gloves 
and  gauntlets,  9,  121;  pos- 
sible origin  of  the  use  of  gloves, 
9,  122;  glove- wearing  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  9,  124;  early 
manufacture  of  gloves,  9,  125; 
application  of  the  sewing- 
machine  to  glove-making,  9, 
128;  materials  for  making 
gloves,  9,  129;  methods  of 
tanning  the  hides,  9,  130. 
Clymer,  an  early  printer  whose 

gresses  were  of  the  primitive 
utenberg  type,  8,  122. 

Coal-tar  colors,  8,  311. 

Cocking,  Henry,  type  of  para- 
chute invented  by,  7,  245. 

"Coherer,"  instrument  invented 
by  Doctor  Branly  for  detect- 
ing the  presence  of  Hertzian 
waves,  8,  52. 

Cohesion,  "force"  of,  5,  49. 

Colding,  a  Danish  scientist,  and 
the  transformation  of  heat, 
3,  257. 

Cole,  Humfray,  suggested  a 
means  of  measuring  a  ship's 
rate  of  progress,  7,  15. 

Cole,  Timothy,  famous  contem- 


porary engraver  whose  work 
differs  in  quality  rather  than 
in  method  from  the  earliest 
wood-engraving,  8,  187. 

Cole,  championed  the  cause  of 
Lewis  Paul  as  inventor  of  the 
spinning-machine,  9,  22. 

Collodion-emulsion  process,  in- 
vented by  Bolton  and  Sayce, 
8,  231. 

Color-photography,  the  develop- 
ment of,  8,  234;  the  future  of, 
8,  247. 

Colton,  Dr.,  associated  with  Mr. 
Lilly  in  the  construction  and 
operation  of  a  small  model 
locomotive,  7,  179. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  effect 
of  his  discovery,  2,  50;  would 
not  have  dared  attempt  his 
voyage  of  discovery  without 
a  compass,  7,  9;  found  cotton 
growing  in  most  of  the  lands 
he  discovered,  9,  7. 

Columbus,  sixteenth-century  an- 
atomist, 2,  1 66. 

Comets,  strangers  to  our  plane- 
tary system,  3,  38;  their 
movements  not  controlled  by 
the  general  law,  3,  39;  eccen- 
tric orbits,  3,51;  their  spec- 
tacular tails,  3,  52,  53;  Encke 
and  Biela's  discovery  of,  3, 
54;  twenty  are  controlled  by 
Jupiter  and  Saturn,  ibid.; 
Biela's  broken  into  fragments, 
3,  55;  Professor  Newcombe's 
estimates  of,  3,  56;  minor 
nebulae  drawn  into  our  sys- 
tem, 3,  70. 

Communism  as  advocated  by 
Pythagoras,  1,  127. 

Compound  engine,  Woolf's  de- 
velopment of,  6,  117;  Horn- 
blower's  invention  of,  6, 
117. 

Compound  engine — see  Steam 
engine. 

Computations,  as  to  the  age  of 
the  earth's  crust,  6,  210;  of 
the  earth's  ultimate  fate,  5, 
212. 

Conquest  of  the  Zones,  Chapter 
I,  7,  S- 


[169] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


Conservation  of  Energy,  The, 
Chapter  VIII,  3,  253. 

Constantinople,  effect  of  its 
capture  by  the  Turks  upon 
contemporary  learning,  2, 
42. 

Cook,  gave  great  attention  to 
the  needle  telegraph,  8,  25. 

Cook,  Dr.  Frederick  A.,  his 
claims  to  discovery  of  the 
pole,  7,  49;  controversy  with 
Peary,  7,  49;  his  records  ad- 
judged inadequate,  7,  49. 

Cook,  Captain  James,  his  as- 
tronomer discovers  that  the 
ship  influences  the  compass, 
7,  10. 

Cooper,  W.,  improved  the  col- 
lodion-emulsion process,  8, 
232. 

Cope,  Professor,  traced  the  an- 
cestry of  the  camel,  3,  113. 

Copernicus  to  Kepler  and  Gali- 
leo—The New  Cosmology, 
Chapter  IV,  2,  52. 

Copernicus,  Nicholas,  famous 
astronomer,  2,  54;  his  system, 
2,  56;  introduction  to  his 
book,  2,57;  "On  the  Order  of 
the  Spheres,"  2,  60;  argu- 
ment from  parallax  urged 
against  him,  2,  63;  advocates 
of  his  theory,  ibid. 

Copper-  and  Steel-Plate  En- 
gravings, 8,  192. 

Cordite,  use  of,  for  producing 
high  temperatures,  6,315;  Sir 
Andrew  Noble  and  Sir  F. 
Abel's  experiments  with,  6, 
315;  possibility  of  using  it  for 
making  artificial  diamonds, 

„  6».3iS- 

Corns,  an  early  experimenter  of 
the  sewing-machine,  whose 
efforts  were  unknown  to 
Howe,  9,  94. 

Cortez,  Hernando,  found  cotton 
growing  indigenously  in  Mex- 
ico and  Peru,  9,  7. 

Corti,  Bonaventura,  observed 
motion  of  the  cell  contents,  4, 
124. 

Coryisart,  Jean  Nicolas  de,  phy- 
sician to  the  First  Consul,  4, 


199;  lays  the  foundation  of 
physical  diagnosis,  4,  200. 

Cosmology,  The  New — Coper- 
nicus to  Kepler  and  Galileo, 
Chapter  IV,  2,  52. 

Costumes,  effect  of  climate  upon, 
9,  59;  military  methods  and 
fashion  responsible  for,  9,  60; 
some  curious  fashions  ex- 
plained, 9,  61;  effects  of  the 
plagues  upon  fashions,  9,  62; 
the  age  of  wigs,  9,  63 ;  the  age 
of  the  "ruff,"  9,  65;  knitted 
garments,  9,  68;  some  re- 
markable costumes,  9,  69; 
fashion  versus  comfort,  9,  74; 
the  return  to  the  common- 
sense  age  in  clothing,  9,  76; 
the  wholesale  manufacture  of 
clothing,  9,  78;  pioneer  me- 
thods of  George  Opdyke,  9, 
78;  the  "task  system"  in- 
troduced, 9,  80;  the  "Bos- 
ton" or  factory  system,  9,  81 ; 
steam  and  electricity  in  fac- 
tories, 9,  83. 

Cotton,  fabrics  of,  probably  first 
introduced  into  the  West 
from  India,  9,  5;  wonderful 
dexterity  of  Hindus  in  weav- 
ing, 9,  6;  laws  passed  in 
Great  Britain  to  prevent  im- 
portation of,  9,  6;  India  as 
the  sower  of,  9,  6;  Western 
Hemisphere  as  source  of  sup- 
ply, 9,  8;  value  of  the  crop 
raised  in  the  two  Americas, 
9,  8;  preparing  for  ship- 
ment, 9,  12;  varieties  of, 
9,  13;  various  machines  for 
opening  the  bales  and  pre- 

rring  the  fibres  for  spinning, 
14;  carding-machine  in- 
vented by  James  Hargreaves, 
9,  16. 

Cotton-Gin,  invented  by  Eli 
Whitney,  9,  8;  circumstances 
leading  to  the  invention  of,  9, 
ip;  mechanism  of  Whitney's 
gin,  9.  ii. 

Count  de  la  Vaux,  his  record 
flight  in  a  balloon,  7,  256. 

Cowper,  E.  A.,  introduced  the 
suspension  wheel  as  an  im- 


[I70] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


provement  to  the  bicycle,  7, 
XS5- 

Cow-pox,  4,  194,  195;  persons 
afflicted  with,  secure  from 
small-pox,  4,  196. 

Coxwell,  the  record  flight  of  one 
of  his  balloons,  7,  256. 

Crane,  use  in  antiquity,  modern 
crane,  6,  38;  combines  prin- 
ciple of  lever  and  inclined 
plane,  6,  39. 

Croll,  Dr.,  computes  that  the 
Gulf  Stream  conveys  to  the 
North  Atlantic  one-fourth  the 
neat  which  it  receives  from 
the  sun,  3,  197;  it  is  produced 
by  the  actual  trade-winds, 
3,  198;  the  effect  on  the 
climate  of  Europe  should  its 
course  be  deflected,  ibid. 

Crompton,  Samuel,  inventor  of 
the  spinning-machine  called 
"the  mule,"  9,  32;  early  life 
and  events  leading  up  to  his 
invention,  9,  32;  the  scant 
recompense  he  received  for 
his  great  invention,  9,  34. 

Crookes,  Sir  William,  experi- 
ments with  the  cathode  rays, 
3,  249;  and  radio-active  sub- 
stances, 6,  103;  his  spinthari- 
scope, 5,  104;  his  experiments 
showed  that  nitrogen  in  the 
atmosphere  can  be  made  to 
combine  with  oxygen,  6,  306. 

Crps,  Charles,  described  a  way 
in  which  an  instrument  might 
be  made  that  would  produce 
such  sounds  as  the  human 
voice,  8,  94. 

Cross-staff,  the  crudest  form  of 
apparatus  for  measuring  the 
height  of  the  sun  and  stars,  7, 
19. 

Crotonian  School  of  Philosophy, 
founded  by  Pythagoras,  I, 
112. 

Crowbar,  modified  form  of  lever, 

6,  5.7- 

Ctesibius,  his  studies  of  the 
problems  of  matter,  1,  243; 
invention  of  mechanism  to 
show  that  heat  can  do  me- 
chanical work,  1,  247;  fire- 


engine  of,  described,  6,  63; 
studies  phenomena  of  suc- 
tion, 6,  94. 

Cugnot,  manufactured  a  steam- 
driven  wagon,  7,  158. 

Cunard,  Samuel,  the  founder  of 
the  Cunard  Line,  7,  74. 

Cupping-glass,  6,  64. 

Curie,  Madame  Skaldowska,  dis- 
covery of  radium,  6,  100;  the 
theories  of  radio-activity  of, 

5,  106. 

Curie,  Professor  Pierre,  dis- 
covery of  radium,  6,  100;  the 
theories  of  radio-activity  of, 

6,  106. 

Curtiss,  Glenn  H.,  his  success- 
ful flight  from  Albany  to  New 
York,  7,  296. 

Cuyier,  George,  his  investiga- 
tions concerning  extinct 
species,  3,  78;  his  inquiries 
respecting  the  fabulous  ani- 
mals of  the  ancients,  3,  8r; 
agrees  with  Smith's  views,  3, 
83;  on  catastrophism,  3,  85; 
rejects  the  fossils  discovered 
by  Dr..  Schmerling,  3,  103; 
his  classification  of  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,  4,  102;  his 
law  of  co-ordination,  4,  107; 
his  opposition  to  the  trans- 
mutation doctrines,  4,  153, 
158. 

Cyclones,  3,  199-205;  a  system 
of  whirls,  3,  202;  primary 
cause  of,  3,  203;  anti-,  3, 
204. 

Cyrus  the  Great,  hie  use  of  the 
wireless  telegraph,  8,  3;  an 
interesting  cylinder  recording 
his  victories  now  preserved 
in  the  British  Museum,  8,  105. 

DAFT,  Leo,  the  inventions  of,  7, 
184. 

Da  Gama,  Vasco,  navigated  to 
India  by  way  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  7,  46. 

Daguerre,  Louis  J.  M.,  brought 
photography  to  perfection,  4, 
70;  8,  202;  discovered  a 
practical  method  of  develop- 
ing photographic  plates,  8, 


[171] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


220;  his  attention  directed 
to  the  subject  of  photography, 
8,  223;  inventor  of  the 
daguerreotype  process,  8, 
224. 

Daguerreotype  perfected  by 
Louis  Daguerre  in  1839,  4, 
70;  8,  224. 

Daimler,  German  inventor,  who 
applied  a  high-speed  oil  en- 
gine to  the  automobile  in 
1884,  6, 140;  used  the  gasoline 
motor  for  the  practical  pro- 
pulsion of  a  tricycle,  7,  157. 

D'Alembert,  Jean  le  Roud, 
determined  the  ratio  of  the 
attractive  forces  of  the  sun 
and  moon,  and  the  mutation 
of  the  axis  of  the  earth,  8,15. 

Dalton,  Chemistry  Since  the 
Time  of,  Chapter  III,  4,  38. 

Dalton,  John,  and  the  atomic 
theory,  4,  38-46;  first  con- 
ception of  the  chemical  atom, 
4,  39;  his  theory  disputed,  4, 
41;  his  theory  adopted,  4, 
44;  predicted  the  liquefaction 
of  gases,  5,  40. 

Daniell,  John  Frederick,  pro- 
duced the  cell  which  bears  his 
name,  3,  236. 

Dark  Age,  Science  in  the,  Chap- 
ter I,  2,  3- 

Darwin,  Charles  Robert,  his 
Origin  of  Species,  3,  95;  his 
work  a  revelation  to  the 
geological  world,  3,  96;  his 
work  on  doctrine  of  evolu- 
tion, 4,  167;  his  most  avail- 
able field,  4,  1 68;  years  spent 
in  gathering  facts,  4,  171; 
joint  paper  of,  and  Wallace, 
presented  to  the  Linnaean 
Society  of  London,  4,  173; 
makes  converts  of  Hooker, 
Lyell,  and  Huxley,  4,  174;  en- 
tombed in  Westminster  Abbey, 
4,  178;  statue  of,  in  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  6,  9; 
computations  as  to  the  earth's 
ultimate  fate,  5,  212. 

Darwin,  Dr.  Erasmus,  his  theory 
concerning  the  aurora  bore- 
atis.  3,  173;  concerning  the 


vapor  of  water,  3;  177;  and 
vegetable  respiration,  4,  94- 
99;  his  Botanic  Garden,  4, 
147;  his  Zoonomia  and  Temple 
of  Nature,  4,  148;  his  ex- 
pression of  the  idea  of  organic 
evolution,  ibid.;  at  his  death 
his  idea  of  transmutation  of 
species  still  an  unsubstan- 
tiated dream,  4,  149. 

Darwinian  theory,  its  develop- 
ment, 4,  1 66;  greatest  scien- 
tific conception  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  5,  241. 

Davenport,  Thomas,  has  the 
distinction  of  building  the 
pioneer  electric  road,  7,  178. 

Davenports,  English  potters 
who  early  produced  wares  of 
superior  quality,  9,  232. 

Da  Vinci,  Leonardo,  his  theories 
concerning  the  creation  sim- 
ilar to  those  expressed  by 
Xenophanes  two  thousand 
years  before,  1,  129;  sketches 
of  flying-machines  by,  7,  227. 

Davy,  Sir  Humphry,  produced 
the  first  electric  lamp,  3,  234; 
his  own  account  of  his  experi- 
ments, 6,  220;  showed  that 
labor  may  be  transformed  into 
heat,  3,  255;  his  experiment 
of  melting  ice  by  friction,  3, 
277;  heat  a  manifestation  of 
motion  among  particles  of 
matter,  3,  294;  and  electro- 
chemistry, 4,  46-53 ;  brilliant 
researches  with  his  voltaic 
battery,  4,  47;  his  famous 
Bakerian  lecture  4,  48;  his 
theory  of  binary  composition 
of  chemical  compounds,  4,  53 ; 
experiments  in  the  mysteries 
of  respiration,  4,  93;  experi- 
ments with  nitrous  oxide,  4, 
209-212;  professor  of  chem- 
istry in  Royal  Institute,  6,  34; 
his  science  of  electro-chem- 
istry, 6,  36;  experiments  with 
low  temperatures,  6,  40;  his 
suggestion  results  in  produc- 
tion of  liquid  chlorine,  5,  41; 
experiments  upon  gases,  6, 
42;  challenged  the  theory  of 


[172] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


imponderable  fluids  as  ap- 
plied to  light  and  heat,  6, 
154;  safety  lamp  of,  6,  250; 
his  experiments  with  the 
camera  obscura,  8,  221. 

Dawes,  Rev.  W.  R.,  one  of  the 
discoverers  of  the  inner  or 
crape  ring  of  Saturn,  3,  44. 

Day  of  Bel,  the,  a  series  of 
tablets  written  in  the  time  of 
Sargon  I.,  3800  B.C.,  1,  67. 

Days,  lucky  and  unlucky,  ac- 
cording to  Egyptian  magi- 
cians, 1,  44,  45,  46. 

De  Bary,  Heinrich,  studies  of 
protoplasm,  4,  125. 

De  Caus,  Solomon,  put  into 
effect  the  idea  of  utilizing 
steam  for  the  practical  pur- 
pose of  raising  water,  6,  83. 

DeForest,  Lee,  inventor  of  wire- 
less telegraph  system  used 
during  the  Russo-Japanese 
war,  8,  65;  instruments  used 
by,  in  experimenting  with 
wireless  telephony,  8,  90. 

De  Gary,  Blasco,  constructed 
the  model  of  a  paddle-wheel 
steamboat,  7,  66. 

Degen,  invented  a  flying-ma- 
chine with  two  parachutes, 

7,  245- 

De  Jussieu,  Antoine  and  Ber- 
nard, founders  of  the  "natural 
system  in  botany,"  2,  303. 

De  Lacaille,  Nicolas  Louis,  his 
remeasurement  of  the  French 
arc  of  the  meridian,  in  1739, 
3,  13;  the  question  of  the 
shape  of  the  earth,  3,  14. 

De  Lamarck,  Jean  Baptiste,  the 
work  of,  4,  151;  his  idea  of 
transmutation  of  species,  4, 
152;  coined  the  word  "biol- 
ogy," 4,  160. 

Delambre,  Jean  Baptiste  Joseph, 
determined  the  orbit  of  the 
planet  Uranus,  3,  16;  inves- 
tigated Alexandre's  telegraph, 

8,  10. 

DeLaval,  Dr.  Gustav,  turbine 
engine  of,  6,  131. 

Delitzsch,  Professor,  his  Assy- 
rian grammar,  1,  96. 


De  Maillet,  and  transmutation  of 
species,  4,  149. 

Demeny,  George,  devised  the 
photoscope  for  reproducing 
the  motion  of  a  man's  lips, 
8,  250. 

Democedes,  the  first  physician 
of  whom  we  have  any  trust- 
worthy history,  1,  172. 

Democritus,  a  dreamer  and  a 
thinker,  1,  162;  his  theory  of 
atoms  curiously  foreshadowed 
nineteenth-century  k  n  o  w  1- 
edge,  1, 163 ;  atoms  differ  from 
each  other  only  in  size  and 
shape,  1 , 1 64 ;  the  quibble  over 
the  word  quality,  1,  166;  a 
forecast  of  the  chemistry  of  the 
future,  1,  167,  169;  a  believer 
in  omens,  1,  170. 

De  Morgan,  a  worker  in  the 
field  of  Egyptian  explora- 
tion, 1,  28. 

De  Rouge,  Vicompte  E.,  a 
follower  of  Dr.  Young  in  the 
study  of  Egyptian  hierogly- 
phics, 1,  27;  theories  of  his 
followers  concerning  the  sym- 
bols of  the  Phoenician  alpha- 
bet,  1,  87. 

Derrick,  see  Crane. 

Desaguiliers,  Dr.  Joseph,  elec- 
trifies running  water,  2,  274; 
originates  story  of  invention 
of  beam  connection  for  oper- 
ating engine  valves,  by  Hum- 
phrey Potter,  cock-boy,  6,  91- 

Descartes,  Ren6,  statement  of 
the  first  law  of  motion,  2,  99; 
formulates  law  of  refraction, 
2,  119;  estimates  of  his  work, 
2.  193;  his  physiological 
views,  2,  194;  theory  of  vor- 
tices, 2,  195. 

Desmoulins,  Louis  Antoine,  his 
studies  of  the  brain,  4,  249. 

Deutschland  and  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
II.  German  ships  that  for 
several  years  held  the  ocean 
record  for  speed,  7,  82. 

Devaine,  discovery  that  anthrax 
is  caused  by  bacteria,  4,  227. 

Development  of  the  Alphabet, 
The,  Chapter  IV,  1,  p.  86. 


[173] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


Development  of  Modern  Ge- 
ology, The  Origin  and, 
Chapter  IV,  3,  116. 

Development  of  Electricity  and 
Magnetism,  The  Modern, 
Chapter  VII,  3,  229. 

Development  of  Electric  Rail- 
ways, The,  Chapter  VI,  7,  1 75. 

Deville,  Ste.-Claire,  dissolution 
and  reformation  of  molecules 
fully  appreciated  by,  4,  61. 

De  Vinne,  Theodore  L.,  his 
description  of  a  perfected 
magazine  press,  8,  135. 

Dewar,  Professor  James,  ex- 
periments with  low  tempera- 
tures, 5,  39;  liquefied  "hy- 
drogen," 6,  43;  his  vacuum 
vessel  for  holding  liquefied 
gases,  6,  53,  54,  68;  his  ex- 
periments show  that  carbon 
will  liquefy  under  pressure 
of  about  fifteen  tons  to  the 
square  inch,  9,  327. 

Diamond  Drill,  6,  247. 

Dias,  Bartholomeo,  discovered 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  7,  46. 

Diesbach,  accidentally  discov- 
ered a  blue  pigment,  8,  299. 

Digestion,  chemical  theory  of, 
4,  88-91;  function  of  the 
glands  that  act  in  the  process 
of,  4,  129,  130. 

Diodorus,  the  Sicilian,  1,  56; 
left  us  a  striking  summary 
of  Babylonian  science,  1, 
77;  describes  pyramid-build- 
ing in  Egypt,  6,  37. 

Diogenes  Laertius,  his  story  of 
the  athletic  prowess  of  Pythag- 
oras, 1,  112. 

Diphtheria,  discovery  of  anti- 
toxine  for,  4,  242. 

Disputed  question  of  "spon- 
taneous" variations,  4,  178; 
Haeckel  and  Spencer  and  the, 
ibid. 

"Dissociation,"  the  dissolution 
and  reformation  of  molecules 
in  a  substance,  4,  61. 

Doctrine  of  irritability,  Haller's 
greatest  contribution  to  medi- 
cal science,  4,  74. 

Dog,  first  animal  to  be  domes- 


ticated, still  used  as  beast  of 
burden,  6,  59. 

Dohrn,  Dr.  Anton,  founder  of 
the  Marine  Biological  Labora- 
tory at  Naples,  5,  121 ;  theory 
of  the  annelid  type  of  inver- 
tebrate ancestor  of  the  ver- 
tebrates, 5,  137. 

Domestic  economy,  methods  at 
beginning  nineteenth  century 
compared  with  those  at  end, 
6,  22-24. 

Door,  a  lever  of  the  second  class, 
6,  30. 

Doors  of  ancient  dwellings,  9, 

r55- 

Dove,  Heinrich  W.,  his  studies 
in  climatology,  3,  199,  200. 

Dow,  type-setting  machine  of, 
8,  151. 

Drais,  Baron  von,  the  earliest 
bicycle  introduced  by,  7,  154. 

Draper,  Dr.  Henry,  made  the 
first  successful  photograph  of 
a  nebula,  3,  67. 

Draper,  Dr.  John  W.,  applica- 
tion of  photography  to  spec- 
troscope, 4,  70;  in  connection 
with  Morse  succeeded  in  mak- 
ing the  first  photographic 
portrait  ever  taken,  8,  226. 

Dreadnought,  Atlantic  record 
for  sailing  vessels  made  by,  7, 
62. 

Driesch,  Dr.,  studies  of  cell 
activities  and  of  heredity 
made  at  the  Marine  Biological 
Laboratory  at  Naples,  6,  131. 

Drill,  a  modified  form  of  the 
lever,  6,  57;  used  in  mining, 
6,  254. 

Dubois,  Dr.  Eugene,  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  ape-man  fossil 
on  the  island  of  Java,  3,  113; 
discovers  the  skull  and  thigh- 
bone of  the  ape-man  of  Java, 
6,  173;  the  "missing link,"  6, 
174;  an  important  addition 
to  our  knowledge  of  man's 
line  of  descent  made  by  dis- 
coveries of,  6,  176. 

Ductless  glands,  their  functions 
discovered  by  Claude  Bernard, 


[174] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Dufay,  Cisternay,  electrical  ex- 
periments, 2,  267;  discovers 
"vitreous"  and  "resinous" 
electricity,  2,  270;  established 
important  facts  regarding  con- 
duction and  insulation,  6,  219. 

Du  jar  din,  contents  of  cells 
named  "sarcode"  by,  4,  124. 

Dumas,  Jean  Baptiste,  his 
school  of  physiological  chem- 
istry, 4,  128. 

Dundas,  Lord,  engaged  Syming- 
ton to  build  a  steam  boat  to 
be  used  for  towing,  7,67. 


made  of  one  piece  of  cast  iron, 
8,  122. 

Early  Greek  Philosophers  in 
Italy,  The,  Chapter  VI,  1, 

112. 

Earth,  the,  ultimate  fate  of,  5, 
212;  future  life  of,  6,  213; 
as  a  conductor  of  electricity,  8. 
48. 

Earth's  crust,  the,  computation 
as  to  the  age  of,  6,  210;  es- 
timated thickness  of,  6,  212. 

Eaton,  William,  inventor  of  the 
self-acting  mule,  9, 


>r  towing,   i,  07.  sen-acting  mule,  y,  35. 

Dunlap,   J.   B.,   introduced  the      Ecole  Polytechnique,  Paris,  Dis- 


pneumatic  tire,  7,   155. 

Diirer,  Albrecht,  best  known 
wood  engravings  made  by,  8, 
188. 

Durouf,  his  use  of  the  balloon 
during  the  Franco- Prussian 
War,  7,  258. 

Dutartre,  the  stop  cylinder  in- 
vented by,  8,  125. 

Dwelling  House,  evolution  of, 
9,  133;  the  cave-dwellers, 
9,  134;  material  used  in 
building  determined  by  the 
natural  products  at  hand, 
9,  138;  methods  of  construc- 
tion, and  architecture,  9,  140; 
the  use  of  chimneys,  9,  151; 
the  first  glass  windows,  9,  153; 
different  types  of  roofs,  9, 
153;  ceilings  and  floors,  9, 
154;  staircases,  9,  155;  doors 
of  ancient  dwellings,  9,  155. 

Dyes,  their  origin,  composition, 
and  uses,  8,  314. 

Dynamo,  The,  6,  171;  the 
mechanism  of,  6,  173;  com- 
plex structure  of  6,  174;  ori- 
gin of,  6,  176;  dynamo- 
electric  machine,  constructed 
by  Michael  Faraday,  6,  177; 
Wilde's  separately  excited,  6, 
178;  introduction  of  the  ring 
arrangement,  6,  179;  amount 
of  loss  of  energy  in,  6,  180; 
in  the  electric  power  plant  at 
Niagara  Falls,  6,  187. 

EARL  of  Stanhope,  produced  a 
printing-press  having  a  frame 


coveryof  "radium  "at,  6, 100. 

Economic  condition  of  Europe, 
its  influence  on  science  in  the 
dark  age,  2,  6. 

Edison,  Thomas  A.,  his  inven- 
tion of  the  incandescent  lamp, 

6,  228;    perfected  a  series  of 
electric-railway    motors    and 
locomotives,  7,  182;  the  stor- 
age-battery car  invented  by, 

7,  189;    patents  a  system  of 
wireless    telegraphy,    8,    50; 
improves   upon   the   type   of 
telephone  receiver,  8,  83 ;   in- 
vents   a    microphone    trans- 
mitter, 8,  83;  inventor  of  the 
phonograph,    8,    93;    his   in- 
vention of  the  kinetoscope,  8, 
251. 

Egg-cell,  contents  of,  6,  227. 

Egypt,  the  first  dynasty,  1,  31; 
the  building  of  the  pyramids, 
1,  32 ;  three  seasons  of,  1,  36. 

Egyptian  antiquities  captured 
by  the  English,  6,5. 

Egyptian  Science,  Chapter  II,  1, 

Egyptian  science,  the  summer 
solstice  corresponded  with  the 
rising  of  the  Nile,  1,  34;  the 
year  divided  into  twelve 
months  of  thirty  days  each,  1, 
35;  the  three  seasons,  1,  36; 
the  fixing  of  New  Dear's  day, 
1,  37;  the  difficulties  con- 
cerning the  unreckoned  quar- 
ter of  a  day,  1,  38;  efforts  to 
reform  the  calendar,  1,  40; 
arbitrary  signs  of  the  zodiac, 


[175] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


1,  41;  conceptions  concern- 
ing the  earth,  sky,  etc.,  1,  42; 
the  recognition  of  the  pulse, 
1,51;  practical  mathematics, 
1,  52;  science  as  science  was 
unknown,  1,  55. 

Egyptian  seasons,  three  in  num- 
ber, 1,  36. 

Egyptian  temples,  oriented  with 
reference  to  the  point  at  which 
the  sun  rises  on  the  day  of 
the  summer  solstice,  1,  34. 

Eighteenth-Century  Medicine, 
Chapter  VII,  4,  182. 

Eleatic  School,  founded  by 
Xenophanes,  1,  114. 

Electricity,  Progress  in,  from 
Gilbert  and  Von  Guericke  to 
Franklin,  Chapter  XIV,  2, 
259. 

Electricity  and  Magnetism,  The 
Modern  Development  of, 
Chapter  VII,  3,  229. 

Electricity,  Oersted's  experi- 
ments with  suspended  mag- 
netic needle,  3,  236;  its  rela- 
tion to  magnetism,  3,  238; 
the  discovery  of  the  principles 
of  electro-dynamics,  3,  239; 
the  first  electro-magnet,  ibid.; 
experiments  of  Michael  Fara- 
day, 3,  243;  the  first  storage 
battery,  3,  246;  Seebecle's 
battery,  3,  247;  the  "Hertz- 
ian Waves,"  now  used  in  wire- 
less telegraphy,  3,  247;  Pro- 
fessor Thompson  and  the 
nature  of,  5,  92;  relation  of 
gases  to  the  conduction  of, 
ibid.;  atomic  character  of,  6, 
96;  regarded  as  a  form  of 
matter,  5,  97;  Age  of,  6,  15; 
general  chapter  on,  6,  148; 
theories  as  to  what  it  is,  6, 
149;  multiform  uses  of,  in 
every -day  life,  6,  149;  Ben- 
jamin Franklin's  one-fluid 
theory  of,  6,  150;  two-fluid 
theory  of,  6,  151;  name  de- 
rived from  Latin  word  elec- 
trunt,  6,  152;  derivation  of 
the  idea  that  it  is  a  "fluid," 
6,  153;  modem  views  of,  6, 
153;  studies  of  Rumford, 


Young,  Fresnel,  and  Davy, 
leading  up  to  modern  theories, 
6,  154;  most  recent  views  as 
to  the  nature,  6,  155;  cur- 
rents of,  simply  aggregations 
of  free  electrons,  6,  156;  how 
it  is  developed,  6,  159; 
statical  and  dynamical,  6, 
1 60;  generation  of,  by  walk- 
ing on  a  wool  carpet  in  cold 
weather,  6,  160;  amount  gen- 
erated by  lightning,  6,  161; 
the  static  machine,  6,  161; 
the  work  of  the  dynamical 
current,  6,  162;  voltaic  cell 
for  generating,  6,  163;  the- 
ories ol  electrical  action, 
6,  165;  practical  uses  of,  6, 
1 68;  current  of,  used  for  pro- 
ducing heat,  6,  169;  dynamos 
for  generating,  6,  174;  mech- 
anism of  its  production  by  the 
dynamo,  6,  181;  amount 

r crated  at  Niagara  Falls, 
[89;  transmission  of,  from 
Niagara  Falls,  6,  194;  loss 
in  transmission  of,  as  esti- 
mated by  Siemens,  6,  195; 
transmission  of,  at  Niagara  by 
recent  methods,  6,  197;  "step 
up"  and  "step-down"  trans- 
formers, 6,  198;  high 
and  low  voltage,  6,  199; 
Ruhmkorff  coil,  the  construc- 
tion of,  6,  199;  traction  en- 
gines used  in  mining,  6,  257; 
engine  invented  by  W.  M. 
Schlessinger,  6,  257;  in  coal- 
mining, 6,  266;  electric  light- 
ing of  mines,  6,  269;  obtain- 
ing nitrogen  from  the  air  by 
the  use  of,  6,  307;  and  high 
temperatures,  6,  313;  the 
discovery  of,  8,  4- 
Electric  light,  Sir  Humphry- 
Davy's  experiments  with,  3, 
234;  first  ever  invented,  by 
Sir  Humphry  Davy,  6,  220; 
first  practical  application  of, 
in  France,  1849,  6,  222;  the 
improved  arc  light,  6,  226; 
Chas.  F.  Brush's  invention  of 
arc  light,  6,  226;  some  recent 
types  of  arc  lights,  6,  227; 


[I76] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


carbons     for,     invented     by 
Carr6,  6,  227;    incandescent, 

6,  228;  Thos.  A.  Edison's  in- 
vention of  the  incandescent 
lamp,     6,     228;      defects    of 
platinum  wire  as  filament  for 
incandescent    lamp,    6,    230; 
carbon  as  a  filament  for  in- 
candescent    lamp       6,     233; 
method  of  preparing  carbon 
filament      for      incandescent 
lamp,    6,    233;    the    tungsten 
lamp,  6,  234;   advantages  and 
defects  of  tungsten  lamp,  6, 
235;    Mercury- vapor  light  of 
Peter      Cooper     Hewitt,     6, 
236. 

Electric  Railways,  the  develop- 
ment of,  7,  175;  the  first 
practical  cable  system  in- 
vented by  Andrew  S.  Hallidie, 

7,  177;     the    small    circular 
railway     built     by     Thomas 
Davenport,  7,  178;   the  elec- 
tro-magnetic   locomotive    of 
Moses  G.  Farmer,  7,  179;  the 
small    working-motor    exhib- 
ited by  Thomas  Hall,  7,  179; 
the  efforts  of  Professor  Page 
to  produce  a  storage-battery 
car,  7,  1 80;    the  experiments 
of  Siemens  and  Halske  with 
electric  motors,   7,   181;    the 
Edison    electric    locomotive, 
7,  182;  third  rails  and  trolleys, 
7,     184;     the    inventions    of 
Daft    and    Van    Depoele,    7, 
185;     the     work    of     Frank 
J.     Sprague     in     developing 
electric     railways,      7,      186; 
the  storage  battery  line  built 
by    E.    Julien,    7,    188;     im- 
provements made  by  Anthony 
Rackenzaun,     7,     189;      the 
Edison    storage-battery    car, 
7,  189;   monorail  systems,  7, 
191;     the    monorail    system 
invented  by  Howard  Hansel 
Tunis,  7,   193. 

Electro-chemistry,  the  new 
science  of,  6,  298;  its  use  in 
obtaining  nitrogen  from  the 
air,  6,  307. 

Electro-magnetism,  8,  14- 


Electron,  composition  of,  and 
newest  theories  about,  6,  148; 
and  radio-active  substances, 
6,  156;  Sir  J.  J.  Thomson's 
conception  of,  6,  158;  theory 
of  origin  of,  6,  165;  in  its  re- 
lation to  the  atom,  6.  156, 
166. 

Electroplating,  action  of  electri- 
city in,  6,  170. 

Elevator,  hydraulic,  principle 
of,  described,  6,  76-77;  the 
invention  of,  by  Elisha  G. 
Otis,  9,  169. 

Elixir  of  life,  2,  124,  131,  136. 

Ellis,  Alexander  J.,  gives  in- 
formation to  Graham  Bell  as 
to  experiments  on  sounds 
performed  by  Helmholtz,  8, 

Embalming  the  dead,  a  purely 
religious  observance  in  Egypt, 
1,  50;  to  prevent  the  spirit's 
return  to  torment  one,  1,  54. 

Embryological  development, 
theory  of,  5,  156. 

Embryology,  studies  in,  by  Von 
Baer,  Miiller,  and  Carpenter, 
4,  122. 

Empedocles,  one  of  the  great 
Italic  leaders  of  thought,  1, 
114;  a  practising  physician, 
1,  133 ;  his  work  as  a  sanitary 
engineer,  1,  134;  his  idea  of 
the  impersonality  of  God,  1, 
135;  his  knowledge  of  em- 
balming, 1,  136;  his  concep- 
tion of  evolution,  1,  137;  he 
had  a  secure  place  among  the 
anticipators  of  the  modern 
evolutionist,  1,  138;  his 
studies  of  the  force  of  air 
pressure,  1,  247. 

Energy,  The  Conservation  of, 
Chapter  VIII,  3,  253. 

Energy,  chief  sources  of,  at 
man's  disposal,  6,  41-42 ;  man 
learns  to  use  energy  of  ani- 
mals, 6,  59  seq.;  uses  of,  con- 
tained in  air  and  water,  6, 
62. 

Engines,  see  Atmospheric  e., 
Electric  e.,  Gas  e.,  Hot- Air  e., 
Piston  e.,  Steam  e.,  Water  e. 


[177] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


Epagomenal  days,  the  legend 
of  Osiris  explaining,  1,  36. 

Epicycles,  the  doctrine  of  wheels, 
1.  237- 

Erasistratus,  one  of  the  first  to 
discover  that  the  nerve-trunks 
have  their  origin  in  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord,  1,  194;  his 
disagreement  with  Herophilus 
as  to  the  functions  of  the 
organs,  1,  195. 

Eratosthenes,  called  the  "sur- 
veyor of  the  world,"  1,  226; 
his  important  modification  of 
the  gnomon,  1,  227;  his 
method  of  determining  the  size 
of  the  earth,  1,  230;  his  con- 
clusions have  ever  been  re- 
garded with  admiration,  1, 
231;  additional  reference  to 
his  measurement  of  the  world, 

7,  5- 

Ericsson,  John,  built  caloric 
engines  on  such  a  scale  as  to 
be  adapted  to  the  propulsion 
of  ships  6,  134- 

Erman,  Professor,  an  Egyptol- 
ogist, 1,  28. 

Ernst  Haeckel  and  the  New 
Zoology,  Chapter  VI,  6,  144. 

Etching,  8,  195;  Rembrandt 
and  Van  Dyck  famous  for 
their  etchings,  8,  196;  Whist- 
ler and  Seymour  Haden  great 
exponents  of  this  kind  of  en- 
graving, 8,  196. 

Ether  and  Ponderable  Matter, 
The,  Chapter  IX,  3,  283. 

Ether,  James  Clerk-Maxwell's 
conception  of,  3,  283;  its 
discovery  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant feats  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  3,  284;  dis- 
covered by  Thomas  Young, 
3,  285;  the  speculations  con- 
cerning it,  3,  286,  290. 

Etienne,  Charles,  discovers  canal 
in  spinal  cord,  2,  163. 

Euclid,  the  father  of  systematic 
geometry,  1,  193. 

Eudoxus,  made  special  studies 
of  the  heavenly  spheres,  1, 
216;  remarked  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic,  1,  228. 


Euler,     Leonard,    professor    of 

Ehysics  and  mathematics  at 
t.  Petersburg,  3,  17;  his 
demonstration  concerning  the 
aphelia  of  Saturn  and  Jupiter, 
3,  18. 

Eustachius,  sixteenth-century 
anatomist,  2,  165;  tube, 
ibid. 

Evans,  Oliver,  experiments  with 
high-pressure  steam,  designs 
road  vehicle,  6,  113;  his 
machine  the  "Oruktor  Am- 
phibious" combined  the  prin- 
ciple of  steamboat  and  loco- 
motive, 7,  121. 

Evolution,  Professor  Marsh  on, 
3,  114. 

Evolution,  Theories  of  Organic, 
Chapter  VI,  4,  140. 

Evolution  of  the  Dwelling  House, 
Chapter  VI,  9,  133. 

Existence,  struggle  for,  ex- 
plained and  exemplified,  6, 
3-6- 

Experiment,  the  first  passenger 
coach,  7,  129. 

Experimental  Psychology,  The 
New  Science  of,  Chapter  IX, 
4. 245-286. 

Eyde,  S.,  his  co-operation  with 
Prof.  Birkeland  in  obtaining 
nitrogen  from  the  air,  6,  306. 

FALCONER,  Dr.,  his  description 
of  the  fossil  remains  in  the 
museum  of  M.  de  Perthes,  3, 
100. 

Fallopius,  sixteenth-century  an- 
atomist, 2,  166. 

Faraday,  Sir  Michael,  begins  the 
study  of  electro-magnetic  in- 
duction, 3,  240;  his  paper 
before  the  Royal  Society,  3, 
241;  his  rotating  disk,  3,  245; 
just  missed  the  discovery  of 
the  conservation  of  energy,  3, 
253;  claimed  the  existence  of 
an  invisible  plenum  every- 
where in  space,  3,  287;  pro- 
duces liquid  chlorine,  6,  39; 
experiments  with  gases,  6, 
40;  hoped  to  establish  a  rela- 
tion between  gravitation  and 


[178] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


electricity  or  magnetism,  5, 
215;  the  idea  of  action  of 
distance  repugnant  to  his 
mind,  6,  155;  his  invention 
of  the  dynamo-electric  ma- 
chine, 6,  177. 

Faraday  tubes,  nature  of,  6,  1 59. 

Farman,  Henry,  his  successful 
flight,  7,  293. 

Farmer,  Moses  G.,  constructed 
an  electro-magnetic  locomo- 
tive, 7,  179. 

Favus,  cause  of,  4,  208. 

Fechner,  Gustav,  his  Psycho- 
physik,  4,  263;  verifies 
Weber's  fundamental  law  of 
psychophysics,  4,  266. 

Fegaunt,  Lieutenant,  and  Cap- 
tain Marconet,  made  a  cross- 
country flight  in  a  Farman 
bi-plane,  7,  298. 

Feil  succeeded  in  making  crys- 
tals of  a  size  from  which  gems 
could  be  cut,  9,  331. 

Ferrel,  Professor  William,  formu- 
lated a  general  mathematical 
law  concerning  wind  currents, 
3,  200. 

Ferrier,  Dr.  David,  and  brain 
localization,  4,  273. 

Field,  Cyrus  W.,  his  connection 
with  the  laying  of  the  At- 
lantic cable,  8,  30;  aboard 
the  Great  Eastern  on  its  first 
cable-laying  expedition,  8, 
42. 

Field,  Stephen  D.,  his  experi- 
ments with  the  electric  motors, 
7,  181. 

Fifteenth-century  medicine,   2, 

39- 

Fielding  and  Platt,  their  work- 
ing model  of  a  rotary  engine 
in  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  6,  122. 

Finding  the  time  without  a 
chronometer,  7,  28. 

Fire  Damp,  in  mines,  6,  249. 

Fire-engine,  device  of  Ctesibius 
described,  6,  63. 

Fitch,  John,  his  efforts  to  perfect 
a  steamboat,  7,  63. 

Fizeau,  M.,  invented  the  process 
of  toning  or  gilding  photo- 


graphs with  a  solution  of 
gold,  8,  228. 

Fleury,  Cardinal,  as  French 
Minister  in  1728  concerned 
himself  with  fashions  in  hoop 
skirts,  9,  74. 

Flinders,  Matthew,  his  discovery 
that  the  influence  of  the  ship 
over  its  compass  varies  with 
the  direction  of  the  ship's 
prow,  7,  ii. 

Floods,  those  of  the  Nile,  the 
Tigris,  and  Euphrates  a  most 
tangible  index  of  the  seasons, 

1,  66. 

Flourens,  Marie  Jean  Pierre,  ex- 
periments in  nerve  physiol- 
ogy, 4,  270;  discovers  the 
"vital  knot,"  ibid. 

Floors,  ancient,  9,  154. 

Flying  Cloud,  speed  made  by, 

Forbes,  the  discoverer  of  the 
polarization  of  heat,  3,  278. 

"Force"  of  cohesion,  6,  49. 

Fossil  beds  of  America,  the, 
finest  known,  3,  106. 

Fossil  man,  the  collection  of  M. 
Boucher  de  Perthes,  3,  100. 

Fossil  horse  described  by  Pro- 
fessor Marsh,  3,  108. 

Foster,  Sir  Michael,  permanent 
secretary  Royal  Society  of 
London,  6,  17. 

Fouque,  French  chemist,  his 
analysis  of  the  blue  pigment 
used  by  the  Egyptians,  8,  302. 

Fourneyron,  invents  turbine 
wheel,  6,  72. 

Franco,  Peter,  itinerant  surgeon, 

2,  182. 

Frank,  associated  with  Caro  in 
perfecting  process  of  nitrogen 
fixation,  6,  309. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  electrical 
experiments,  2,  286;  his 
theory  of  electricity,  2,  288; 
6,  150;  his  battery,  2,  289; 
invents  the  lightning-rod,  2, 
290;  proves  that  lightning  is 
electricity,  2,  293;  his  theory 
concerning  the  aurora  borealis, 

3,  173;  concerning  the  vapor 
of  water,  3,  177;  pointed  out 


[179] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


that  water  carries  sound  far- 
ther and  faster  than  air,  and 
with  greater  constancy,  7, 
85;  invented  the  "Franklin 
stove,"  9,  167. 

Fraunhofer,  Joseph,  the  per- 
fector  of  the  refracting  tele- 
scope and  the  "  heliometer," 
3,  60. 

Fremy,  succeeded  in  making 
crystals  of  a  size  from  which 
gems  could  be  cut,  9,  331. 

Fresnel,  Augustin  Jean,  cham- 
pions Dr.  Young's  wave  the- 
ory of  light,  3,  226;  elected 
a  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  ibid . ;  challenged 
the  doctrine  of  imponderable 
fluids  as  applied  to  light  and 
heat,  6,  153- 

Friction,  6,  39-41;  friction  re- 
ducers, 6,  54,  seq. 

From  Cart  to  Automobile,  Chap- 
ter V,  7,  152. 

From  Paracelsus  to  Harvey, 
Chapter  VII,  2,  156. 

Fuhlrott,  Dr.,  his  discoveries  in 
a  cave  at  Neanderthal,  3,  102. 

Fulton,  Robert,  inventor  of  the 
Clermont,  the  first  practical 
steamboat,  7,  70;  built  the 
first  war  steamer  and  ocean 
steamer  ever  attempted,  7, 
73 ;  his  experiments  with  sub- 
marine boats,  7,  98;  the 
Nautilus,  his  first  submarine, 
7,99. 

Furniture  and  Furnishings, 
Chapter  IX,  9,  213-224. 

Furniture  and  Furnishings, 
early  types  of,  9,  213;  the 
beginning  of  the  time  of 
modern  furniture,  9,  216;  the 
passing  of  hand  carving,  9, 
217;  other  ingenious  tools 
used  in  furniture-making,  9, 
223. 

GALE  r^percute'e,  4,  204,  205. 

Galen,  the  last  great  scientist 
of  the  Alexandrian  school,  1, 
272;  a  tireless  worker,  1 ,  277; 
his  erroneous  conceptions  re- 
garding the  heart,  1,  278;  his 


treatment  of  the  ulnar  nerve, 

1,  279;  his  treatment  of  Em- 
peror Marcus  Aurelius,  1,  280; 
his   system  of   treatment,   1, 
281;    his    erroneous   theories 
about    respiration    and     the 
pulse  beat,  1,  282;  his  obser- 
vations of  the  skin  and  heart, 
1,283. 

Galileo,  Galilei,  life  and  work,  2, 
76;  construction  of  telescope, 

2,  78,    253;     telescopic    ob- 
servations, 2,  78,  79,  80;   dis- 
covery of   sun-spots,    2,   80; 
trial  for  heresy,  2,  81;  pub- 
lication of  his  work,   2,   83; 
extract    from    his    work,    2, 
84;    experiment  at   Pisa,   2, 
94;    theory  in  regard  to  pro- 
jectiles, 2,95;  mechanical  dis- 
coveries, 2,  98;    experiments 
with  inclined  planes,  2,  100; 
with  pendulum,  2,   100;    ex- 
periments with  fluids,  2,  105; 
account    of    his    experiments 
with   floating   bodies,    in   his 
own  words,   2,   106;    invents 
the  thermometer,  2,  119. 

Galileo  and  the   New  Physics, 

Chapter  V,  2,  93. 
Galileo,   The   Successors  of,   in 

Physical  Science,  Chapter  X, 

2,  204. 

Gall,  Dr.  Franz  Joseph,  studies 
in  phrenology,  4,  247. 

Gallium  discovered,  4,  68. 

Galvani,  Luigi,  the  discoverer  of 
the  new  agent  galvanism, 

3,  229;   his  experiments  with 
frogs'   legs,   3,   230;    his  ex- 
periments paved  the  way  for 
the  electric  light,  6,  210. 

Ganglion  cells,  studies  of,  4,  279. 

Garnerin,  the  folding  umbrella- 
like  parachute  invented  by, 
7,  243. 

Gas,  term  coined  by  Van  Hel- 
mont,  2f  1 86. 

Gas,  Acetylene,  6,  212;  use  of 
calcium  carbide  in  producing, 
6,  213;  discovery  of  its  use 
for  illuminating  by  Thos.  F. 
Wilson,  6,  213;  Niagara  Falls 
the  centre  of  carbide  manu- 


[180] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


facturing  industry,  6,  214;  Gastric  juice,  R6aumur's  ex- 
cost  of  production  of,  6,  215;  periments  with,  4,  89;  Spal- 
defects  of,  6,  215;  lamps  for  lanzani's  and  Hunter's  the- 


burning,  6,  216;  at  the  Pan- 
American  Exhibition  at 
Buffalo,  6,  216;  proper  meth- 


cries of,  ibid.;  action  of,  after 
death,    4,    90;     hydrochloric 
acid    discovered    in,    4,    129; 
active    principle    in, 

Gaudin,  produced  true  rubies  of 
microscopic  size,  9,  331. 


od  of  generating,  6,  217.  pepsin 

Gas  and  Oil  Engines,  Chapter      _  ibid. 
on,  6,  132. 

Gas  engine,  principle  of,  6,  132;          r. _,  „,  00i. 

of  Sir  G.  Cayley,  6,  132 ;  early  Gauss,  one  of  the  first  inventors 
attempts  to  invent,  6,  134;  of  a  practical  working  tele- 
first  practical  one  invented  graph,  8,  17. 
by  J.  J.  E.  Lenoir,  6,  135;  Gay-Lussac,  Joseph  Louis,  ex- 
principle  on  which  modern  periments  with  gases,  4,  42. 
gas  engines  work,  6,  135;  Gears,  levers  of  the  second  class, 
method  of  operation  in  per-  6,  35-36. 

fected  type,  6,  138;  intro-  Geber,  Arabian  chemist,  2,  20. 
duction  of  a  volatile  oil  for  Gems,  Natural  and  Artificial, 
supplying  the  gas,  6,  139;  Chapter  XII,  9,  295;  "lucky" 
G.  Daimler's  development  in  and  "unlucky"  stones,  9, 
1884,  6,  140;  modern  form  295;  confused  nomenclature, 

9,  297;  practical  tests,  9, 
300;  the  cutting  of  precious 
stones,  9,  305;  diamonds  in 
the  rough,  9,  312;  the  ruby 
and  its  allies,  9,  319;  artificial 
gems,  9,  327. 

Genealogical  tree,  Haeckel's, 
regarding  the  ancestry  of 
man,  6,  172;  the  "missing 
link,"  6,  173. 


of  motor  devised  by  Messrs. 
Panhard  and  Levassor,  6, 
140;  difficulties  to  be  over- 
come in  perfecting  it  precisely 
opposite  to  those  of  the  steam 
engine,  6,  140;  status  of,  as 
compared  with  steam  en- 
gines, 6,  141;  reason  for  ex- 
ploding the  mixed  gases  in 
the  oil  engine,  6,  144. 


Gas,    illuminating,    flat   burner      Gennes,   M.   de,    French  Naval 


invented  by  Neilson  in  1820, 
6,  208;  invention  of  the  incan- 
descent mantle,  6,  208;  Cla- 
mond  mantle  used  in  1882, 
6,  209;  used  for  producing 
"lime  light,"  6,  209;  Dr. 
Auer  von  Welsbach's  per- 
fected incandescent  burner, 
6,  210;  acetylene  used  for, 
6,  212;  part  played  by  elec- 
tric furnace  in  producing 
acetylene  gas,  6,  213. 
Gases,  liquefied,  6,  40-42 ;  meth- 
ods used,  6,  45,  46;  Dewar's 


officer  who  suggested  plans  for 
a  power-loom,  9,  43. 

Geocentric  theory,  1,  217. 

Geology,  The  Origin  and  De- 
velopment of  Modern,  Chap- 
ter IV,  3,  116. 

Geometry,  according  to  Herod- 
otus, was  invented  in  Egypt, 
1,  107. 

G6rard,  the  flying-machine  of, 
7.  241. 

Gerlach,  the  histological  scheme 
of,  4,  281. 

Germanium  discovered,   4,   68. 


vacuum  vessei~for  holding,  6,      Giant,  the  voyages  of  the,  7,  252. 
3;    new,  discovered  by  Dr.      Giffard,   "the  Fulton  of  aerial 
Lamsey,    6,    84;     questions          navigation,"  7,  251. 
raised  by  discovery,  6,  89-91;      Gifford,   George,    a   New   York 

lawyer,  his  argument  for  the 
validity  of  Howe's  sewing- 
machine  patent,  9,  93. 


their    relation    to    the    con- 
duction of  electricity,  5,  93 
Gas  mantle,  6,  211. 

[181] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


pi 

Gille 


Gilbert,  William,  study  of  mag- 
netism, 2,  in;  6,  175;  7, 
10 ;  the  earth  a  magnet,  2, 
113;  "  dipping ' '  of  the  needle, 
2,  114;  other  discoveries,  2, 
116. 

Gill,  Dr.  David,  at  the  Cape 
observatory  made  the  first 
Dhotograph  of  a  comet,  3,  67. 
llebrand,  Professor,  English 
professor  of  geometry  who  in- 
dependently discovered  that 
the  declination  of  the  com- 

n  varies  from  time  to  time, 
»• 

Gintl,  Doctor,  invents  an  in- 
strument for  sending  tele- 
graphic messages  in  opposite 
directions  at  the  same  time, 
8,  25. 

Glaciers,  the  phenomena  of,  3, 
147;  the  moraines,  3,  148; 
the  perched  bowlders,  ibid.; 
the  polished  and  striated 
rocks,  the  lapiaz,  3,  149; 
the  ancient  moraines,  3,  150; 
perched  bowlders  in  the  Al- 
pine valley,  3,  152;  Agassiz's 
fitudes  sur  Us  Glaciers,  3,  154; 
treated  with  contempt  by 
most  scientists,  ibid.;  a  mile 
deep  over  New  England,  3, 
163;  the  results  following  the 
rending  of  the  ice  sheet,  3, 
164. 

Glands,  discovery  of,  in  the 
mucous  membrane,  4,  129. 

Glass  and  Glass-making,  Chap- 
ter XI,  9,  277;  its  origin  un- 
known, 9,  277;  important 
developments  that  glass  has 
made  possible,  9,  278;  prob- 
able discoveries  of  glass,  9, 
279;  a  doubtful  Roman  tra- 
dition, 9,  281;  the  com- 


Globe,  the,  constructed  by  Ste- 

Ehenson  for  use  on  the 
tockton  &  Darlington  Rail- 
way, 7,  134- 

Gloves,  Manufacture  of.  See 
Clothing  the  Extremities,  9, 
103. 

Glycerine  discovered  by  Karl 
Wilhelm  Scheele,  4,  27. 

Goddard,  discovered  that  bro- 
mine vapor  rendered  photo- 
graphic plates  more  sensitive, 
8,  228. 

Godfrey,  Thomas,  discovered  a 
means  of  measuring  the  alti- 
tude of  astronomical  bodies, 
7,  20. 

Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang, 
studies  of  the  metamorphosis 
of  plants,  4,  140-145;  ex- 
tends the  doctrine  to  the 
animal  kingdom,  4,  146. 

Golgi,  Dr.  Camille,  process  of 
staining  nerve  cells,  4,  282. 

Goodson,  J.  H.,  the  graphotype 
invented  by,  8,  149. 

Goodyear,  inventor  of  the  "turn 
shoe"  machine,  automatic 
heeling-machine,  etc.,  9,  113. 

Gordon,  Andrew,  his  electric 
motor  and  bell,  2,  279. 

Graebe,  effected  the  synthesis 
of  alizarine,  8,  313. 

Graham,  Mr.,  discovered  daily 
variations  of  the  compass,  7, 
10. 

Gralath,  Daniel,  groups  Leyden 
jars  in  a  "battery,"  2,  283. 

Gramme,  re-invented  the  ring 
dynamo,  6,  179. 

Granville,  W.  P.,  system  of 
wireless  telegraphy  installed 
by,  8,  51. 

Gravitation,    Newton    and    the 

Law  of,  Chapter  XII,  2.  236. 
. .   ^ .  *       t  -^       p    j .      F    j- 


position  of  glass,  9,  284;   the      Gravitation,  law  of,  discovered 


process  of  manufacturing 
window  glass,  9,  287;  plate- 
glass  making,  9,  291;  cut 
glass,  9,  293;  "wire-glass," 
9,  294. 

Glass  negatives,  invented  by 
Niepce  St.  Victor,  8,  229. 

Glass  windows,  the  first,  9,  153. 


by  Isaac  Newton,  2,  236; 
Newtonian  laws  apply  to 
every  particle  of  matter  in  the 
universe,  3,  58;  power  of, 
6,  214;  hope  of  establishing  a 
relation  between,  and  elec- 
tricity or  magnetism,  6,  215; 
so-called  law  of,  5,  231. 


[182] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Gray,  Asa,  became  an  ardent 
propagandist,  4,  175. 

Gray,  Prof.  Elisha,  his  experi- 
ments with  submarine  signal- 
ing, 7,  85;  invents  a  system 
for  sending  multiple  messages, 
8,  26;  inventor  of  a  practical 
telephone,  8.  73;  controversy 
with  Bell,  8,  81. 

Gray,  Stephen,  experiments 
with  electric  conduction  and 
insulation,  2,  262;  6,  219; 
modern  telegraph  made  pos- 
sible by  his  discovery  that 
electricity  could  be  conduct- 
ed practically  unlimited  dis- 
tances by  means  of  wires  or 
threads,  8,  4. 

Gray,  Thomas,  suggest  the  con- 
struction of  a  railroad  for 
passenger  and  freight  traf- 
fic, 7,  127. 

Great  Eastern,  description  of 
the,  7,  77;  the  part  it  played 
in  the  laying  of  the  Atlantic 
cable,  8,  42. 

Great  Republic,  description  of 
the,  7,  61. 

Great  Western,  made  a  record 
voyage,  for  the  first  time 
using  steam  alone  as  a  motive 
power,  7,  73. 

Greek  Philosophers  in  Italy, 
The  Early,  Chapter  VI,  1, 

112. 

Greek  Science,  The  Beginnings 
of,  Chapter  V,  1,  103. 

Greek  Science  in  the  Early 
Attic  Period,  Chapter  VII, 

If  J39- 

Greek  Science  of  the  Alexan- 
drian or  Hellenistic  Period, 
Chapter  IX,  1,  189. 

Greenough,  John  T.,  inventor 
of  a  sewing-machine  using  a 
double-pointed  needle,  9,  91. 

Guericke,  Otto  von.  See  von 
Guericke. 

Gu6rin,  Alphonse,  endeavors  to 
protect  wounds  from  germs, 
4,  230. 

Guimet,  French  chemist  who 
synthesized  the  pigment  ul- 
tra-marine in  1828,  8,  297. 


Gulf  Stream,  the,  theories  of 
Humboldt  and  Maury  con- 
cerning it,  3,  196;  it  carries 
an  enormous  quantity  of  heat, 
3,  197;  its  effect  on  the 
climate  of  the  seaboard  of  the 
United  States  and  Europe,  3, 
'198. 

Gun-shot  wounds,  effect  on  sur- 
gery in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, 2,  41. 

Gurney,  opposition  to  the  auto- 
mobile invented  by,  7,  160. 

Gutenberg,  Johannes,  the  father 
of  printing,  8,  120;  his  press 
the  simplest  and  first,  8,  120. 

Guy  of  Chauliac,  the  effect  of 
his  methods  upon  mediaeval 
surgery,  2,  38. 

Gyrocar,  The,  Chapter  VII,  7, 
195;  gyroscopic  action  ex- 
plained, 7,  197;  Mr.  Bren- 
nan's  model  car,  7,  200;  How 
the  Brennan  gyroscopes 
work,  7,  203;  the  evolution 
of  an  idea,  7.  213. 

Gyroscope  and  Ocean  Travel, 
The,  Chapter  VIII,  7,  217; 
the  idea  of  the  gyroscope  on 
ships  put  into  fairly  success- 
ful operation  by  Professor 
Piazzi  Smyth,  7,  217;  Bes- 
semer's  costly  experiment,  7, 
217;  Dr.  Schlick's  successful 
experiment,  7,  219;  did  gy- 
roscopic action  wreck  the 
Viper?  7,  222;  theoretical 
dangers  of  the  gyroscope,  7, 
223. 

Gyroscopic  action  explained,  7, 
197. 

HADEN,  Seymour,  one  of  the 
great  exponents  of  the  type 
of  engraving  known  as  etch- 
ing, 8,  196. 

Hadley,  John,  devised  an  in- 
strument called  the  qua- 
drant for  measuring  the  al- 
titude of  astronomical  bodies, 
7,  20. 

Haeckel,  Ernst  Heinrich, 
and  the  Darwinian  theory,  4, 
175;  and  the  disputed  ques- 


[183] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


tion  of  "spontaneous  varia- 
tions," 4,  178;  and  the  new 
zoology,  6,  144-177:  his  many 
paintings,  5,  152;  discoveries 
of  numerous  species  of  radio- 
larians,  5,  154;  gastrula  the- 
ory of,  5,  155;  his  theory  of 
embryological  development, 
6,  156;  great  champion  of 
Darwinism,  ibid.;  his  work 
on  morphology,  6,  157;  lib- 
erty of  spirit  accorded  at 
Jena,  6,  158;  his  laboratory 
at  Jena,  6,  159;  his  method 
of  work,  5,  161;  his  methods 
of  teaching,  6,  163;  recog- 
nized leader  in  the  new  zool- 
ogy, 6,  171;  his  genealogical 
tree  regarding  the  ancestry 
of  man,  6,  172;  man's  line 
of  descent  clearly  traced  by, 
6,  176. 

Haeckel,  Ernst,  and  the  New 
Zoology,  Chapter  VI,  6,  144- 

Hahnemann,  Christian  Samuel 
Friedrich,  the  medical  system 
of,  4,  188. 

Hales,  Stephen,  father  of  vege- 
table physiology,  2,  298; 
study  of  the  elasticity  of  air, 
4,  ii  ;  described  a  process  of 
distilling  coal,  6,  207. 

Hall,  Charles  M.,  discovered  a 
process  for  producing  alum- 
inum, 6,  300. 

Hall,  Marshall,  and  physical 
diagnosis,  4,  203;  observa- 
tions and  reflex  action,  4, 


251-258. 
ll, 


ibid.;  calculated  the  orbit  of  a 
comet,  3,6;  speculations  con- 
cerning meteors,  3,  7; 
showed  that  fixed  stars  have 
an  actual  or  "proper"  mo- 
tion in  space,  3,  57;  showed 
that  the  deviations  of  the 
compass  were  due  to  some 
influence  having  to  do  with 
the  problem  of  terrestrial 
magnetism,  7,  10. 

Hallidie,  Andrew  S.,  the  first 
practical  cable  system  made 
by,  7,  177. 

Halske,  his  experiments  with 
electric  motors,  7,  181. 

Haly,  Abbas,  author  of  The 
Royal  Book,  2,  24. 

Hamilton,  Charles  K.,  his  flight 
from  New  York  to  Philadel- 
phia and  return  in  June,  1910, 

Hamilton's,  Sir  William,  collec- 
tion acquired  for  British 
Museum,  5,  5. 

Hammer,  a  modified  form  of  the 
lever,  6,  57. 

Hampson,  Dr.  William,  im- 
proved method  of  liquefac- 
tion of  gases,  6,  44;  his  ap- 
paratus for  liquefying  air, 

5,45- 
Hanaman,    in   connection   with 

Just,  takes  out  patent  for  a 

lamp  with  incandescent  fila- 

ment, 6,  235. 
Hand  tools,  modified  forms  of 

the  lever,  6,  57-59. 
Hansen,   Christian   August,   in- 

ventor  of   an   electrical   ma- 

chine, 2,  274. 


Hall,  Thomas,  exhibited  a  small 

working-motor    on    a    track 

forty  feet  long,  7,  179.  Harets  ben  Kaladah,  physician 

Haller,  Albrecht  von,  4,  73-75;      __of  Mohammed,  2,  23. 
,  4,  74; 


doctrine  of  irritability,  , 
discoveries  in  embryology, 
4,  75;  first  to  use  the  watch 
in  counting  the  pulse,  4,  76. 
Halley,  his  observations  on  the 
changes  in  the  variations  of 
the  compass,  3,  4;  his  ob- 
servations on  the  transit  of 
Mercury,  3,  5;  his  discovery 
of  a  method  of  determining 
the  parallax  of  the  planets, 


Hargreaves,  James,  the  first 
carding-machine  invented  by, 
in  1762,  9,  16;  inventor  of  the 
spinning-  jenny,  9,  21;  first 
patent  taken  out  in  1770,9,  23; 
his  description  of  his  process 
of  spinning,  9,  23;  difficulties 
encountered  in  introducing 
his  machine,  9,  24. 

Harrison,  John,  inventor  of  the 
first  accurate  watch,  for  which 


[184] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


he  received  a  prize  of  twenty 
thousand  pounds  sterling  from 
the  British  Government,  7, 

Hartley,  Dr.  David,  his  famous 
vibration  theory,  4,  268. 

Harvey,  From  Paracelsus  to, 
Chapter  VII,  2,  156. 

Harvey,  William,  life  of,  2,  169; 
his  discovery  of  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood,  2,  171-178. 

Hatchet,  principle  of,  6,  54. 

Hauksbee,  Francis,  his  mercu- 
rial fountain,  2, 2  59 ;  discovery 
of  "induction,"  2,  259-262; 
early  experiments  with  the 
telephone,  8,  67. 

Hauron,  Ducos  du,  his  simple 
method  of  color-photography, 
8,  241. 

Hautefeuille,  attempted  to  make 
practical  use  of  the  power  set 
free  by  the  explosion  of  gun- 
powder, 6,  134. 

Heat,  Count  Rumford's  experi- 
ments with,  3,  209;  Hum- 
phry Davy's  independent  de- 
monstration that  labor  may 
be  transformed  into,  3,  255; 
Sadi  Carnot  expresses  belief 
in  the  quantitative  relation 
between  work  and,  3,  255; 
James  Prescott  Joule  demon- 
strated the  mechanical  equiv- 
alent of,  3,  256;  Colding, 
Mayer,  and  Helmholtz  inde- 
pendently discover  the  same 
principle,  3,  257;  Dr.  Mayer's 
own  account  of  his  discovery, 
3,  259;  Joule's  paper  on,  1843, 
3,  269;  James  David  Forbes 
showed  that  radiant  heat 
resembles  light  in  its  confor- 
mation to  laws  of  polarization 
and  double  refraction,  3,  275; 
studies  of  heat  by  Professor 
William  Thomson  (later  Lord 
Kelvin)  led  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  doctrine  of  the 
dissipation  of  energy,  3,  276; 
the  old  theory  of  "imponder- 
ables" finally  substituted  by 
the  theory  of  an  all-pervading 
ether,  3,  281;  explained  as 


due  to  the  vibrations  of  the 
particles  of  matter,  3,  294; 
studies  of,  by  Clausius,  Clerk- 
Maxwell,  and  others,  led  to 
the  development  of  the  ki- 
netic theory  of  gases,  3,  295; 
absence  of,  causes  liquefaction 
of  gases,  3,  304;  low-tem- 

rature  researches  in  detail, 
.  38-72;  principle  that  heat 
can  do  mechanical  work  by 
generating  steam  shown  by 
Hero  or  Ctesibius,  6,82;  gen- 
eration of,  by  electricity,  6, 
169. 

Heat  and  Light,  Modern  The- 
ories of,  Chapter  VI,  3,  206. 

Heating,  the  problem  of,  in 
ancient  and  mediaeval  dwell- 
ings, 9,  150;  in  skyscrapers, 
9,  i 66. 

Heaviside,  A.  W.,  experimented 
with  parallel  telegraph  lines, 
8,  51- 

Heidenham,  Dr.  Rudolf,  on  the 
phenomena  of  hypnotism,  4, 
269. 

Heliocentric  theory,  as  pro- 
pounded by  Aristarchus  in 
the  third  century  B.C.,  1, 
212;  as  demonstrated  by 
Copernicus  in  the  fifteenth 
century  A.D.,  2,  54. 

Hellenistic  Period,  Greek  Science 
of  the  Alexandrian  or,  Chap- 
ter IX,  1,  189. 

Helmholtz,  Hermann  von,  his 
theory  of  solar  energy,  3, 
65;  renounced  all  claim  to 
the  discovery  of  the  conser- 
vation of  energy  in  favor  of 
Mayer,  3,  269;  found  that  a 
vortex  whirl  once  established 
in  a  frictionless  medium  must 
go  on  forever,  3,  290;  his 
measurement  of  speed  of 
nervous  impulses,  4,  262;  ex- 
planation of  the  continued 
heat  of  the  sun,  6,  207;  con- 
cluded that  man  would  never 
be  able  to  fly  by  his  own 
power  alone,  7,  278. 

Henderson,  Thomas,  his  work 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in 


[185] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


detecting  and  measuring  the 
parallax  of  a  star,  3,  61. 

Henry  III,  French  King,  his  use 
of  extraordinary  ruffs,  9,  65. 

Henry  VIII,  probably  intro- 
duced knitted  stockings  into 
England,  9,  68. 

Henry,  Joseph,  his  experiments 
with  electric  magnets,  3,  239; 
8,  16;  his  early  studies  of 
electro-magnetic  induction,  6, 
175;  his  construction  of  elec- 
tro-magnets, 6,  177. 

Henry  the  Navigator  of  Portu- 
gal, his  physicians  credited 
with  inventing  or  introduc- 
ing the  astrolabe,  7,  19. 

Henson,  his  studies  of  the  lift- 
ing-power of  plane  surfaces,  7, 
246. 

Heraclides  first  to  point  out  the 
value  of  opium  in  certain 
diseases,  1,  196. 

Hero,  or  Heron,  a  pupil  of  Ctesi- 
bius,  1,  243;  an  explicit 
champion  of  the  molecular 
theory  of  matter,  1,  245;  his 
experiments  with  water  and 
gases,  1,  246;  his  experiments 
with  heated  air  to  produce 
motor  power,  1,  247'  his  ex- 
periments with  air  under  pres- 
sure, 1,  248;  his  steam  engine, 
1,  250;  the  inventor  of  the 
penny-in-the-slot  machine,  1, 
251;  studied  phenomena  of 
suction,  6,  64;  described 
and  perhaps  invented  mech- 
anism to  show  that  heat  could 
do  mechanical  work,  6,  82. 

Herodotus,  his  visit  to  Babylon, 
If  57.  J?3;  refers  to  the  use 
of  skins  in  writing,  8,  no. 

Herophilus,  his  records  are  the 
first  we  have  of  the  dissection 
of  the  human  body,  1,  194; 
handed  condemned  criminals 
over  to  the  medical  profession 
to  be  operated  on,  1,  195. 

Herschel,  John,  in  collaboration 
with  James  South  he  dis- 
covered many  double  stars,  3 , 
58;  his  improvements  of  the 
microscope,  4,  in. 


Herschel,  William,  his  positive 

fenius  for  sidereal  discovery, 
,19;  discovered  the  planet 
Uranus,  3,  20;  conceived  the 
universe  to  be  a  vast  galaxy 
of  suns  held  to  one  centre,  3, 
22;  thinks  that  all  the  suns 
are  "well  supplied  with  in- 
habitants," 3,  23;  theory 
of  the  Milky  Way,  3,  24; 
thought  all  the  suns  of  a  sys- 
tem would  be  drawn  together 
and  destroyed  by  impact,  3, 
26;  suggests  that  the  planets 
Ceres  and  Pallas  be  called 
asteroids,  3,  41;  discovered 
that  certain  fixed  stars  have 
changed  their  relative  posi- 
tions, 3,  57. 

Hertz,  Dr.  Heinrich,  discovered 
the  method  now  used  in  wire- 
less telegraphy,  3,  247;  his 
electro-magnetic  theory  of 
light,  3,  280;  produced  elec- 
tromagnetic waves,  6,  154; 
discovery  of  "  Hertzian ' ' 
waves,  8,  52. 

Hevelius,  Johannes,  advanced 
astronomy  by  his  accurate 
description  of  the  face  and 
the  spots  of  the  moon,  3,  3. 

Hesse,  G.  Emil,  description  of 
the  Svea  caloric  engine,  6,145. 

Hewitt,  Peter  Cooper,  his  in- 
vention of  the  mercury-vapor 
light,  6,  236. 

High  temperatures,  obtained  by 
electricity,  6,  314;  obtained 
by  explosion  of  cordite  in 
closed  chamber,  6,  315. 

Highway  of  the  Waters,  The, 
Chapter  II,  7,  56. 

Hildanes,  Fabricius,  German 
surgeon,  2,  183. 

Hinrichs,  Professor  Gustav. 
draws  attention  to  "law  of 
octaves,"  4,  67. 

Hipparchus,  demonstrated  the 
eccentricity  of  the  sun's  seem- 
ing orbit,  1,  234;  his  theory, 
though  incorrect,  absolutely 
consistent  with  all  the  facts  of 
a  correct  observation  of  the 
sun's  eccentricity,  1,  235;  his 


[186] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


theory  exemplified  by  a  lan- 
tern on  a  cart-wheel,  1,  237; 
the  dominant  scientific  per- 
sonality of  his  century,  1, 
238;  demonstrated  the  pre- 
cession of  the  equinoxes,  1, 
242. 

Hippocrates,  the  "father  of 
medicine,"  1,  174;  his  specu- 
lations about  the  heart,  1, 
175;  his  acceptance  of  the 
humoral  theory  of  disease,  1, 
176. 

Hirschovel,  early  English  potter 
who  produced  wares  of  super- 
ior quality,  9,  232. 

Histological  scheme,  the,  of 
Gerlach,  4,  281. 

Histology,  the  rise  of,  4,  113. 

History,  Natural,  to  the  Time  of 
Linnaeus,  Chapter  XV,  2,  297. 

Hoe,  a  modified  form  of  the 
lever,  6,  57. 

Hoe,  Richard  M.,  inventor  of 
the  type-revolving  machine, 

8,  127. 

Hofer,  H.,  German  experimen- 
ter, proved  that  nitrogen 
from  the  air  can  be  made  to 
combine  with  oxygen  in  the 
laboratory,  6,  306. 

Hoffman,  Mr.,  invented  a  rotary 
engine,  6,  123. 

Hoffmann,  Friedrich,  arranged 
Boerhaave's  doctrines  in  a 
"system,"  4,  184. 

Holland,  the  type  of  diving-boat 
most  familiar  to  the  majority 
of  people,  7,  107. 

Holland,  Philemon,  his  transla- 
tion of  the  summary  of  Baby- 
lonian science  by  Diodorus,  1, 

Holland,  P.,  success  of  the  sub- 
marine due  to  his  efforts,  7, 
105;  the  Holland  type  of 
boat,  7,  107. 

Holmes,  Sir  George,  his  descrip- 
tion of  the  voyage  of  the  re- 
plica of  the  Santa  Maria,  7, 
60. 

Honain  ben  Isaac,  Arabian 
physician,  2,  24. 

Honorius,  public  mills  probably 


introduced  in  the  Roman 
Empire  about  the  time  of  his 
reign  (384-423  A.D.),  6,  71. 

Hooke,  Robert,  2.  215;  his 
flying-machines,  2,  216;  mi- 
croscopical observations,  2, 
217,  218;  controversy  with 
Newton,  2,  237;  prone  to 
claim  other  men's  discoveries, 
8,  23 ;  method  of  communica- 
tion by  telephone,  8,  68. 

Hooker,  Sir  Joseph,  half-con- 
vert to  Darwin's  views,  4,  171; 
accepts  Darwin's  theories,  4, 
174. 

Hopkins'  estimate  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  earth's  crust,  6,212. 

Hopkins  and  Rittenhouse  in- 
vented and  sent  up  a  balloon, 
7,  237. 

Hornblower,  Jonathan,  invents 
and  patents  compound  en- 
gine; the  original  element  in 
his  idea,  6,  117. 

Horse,  the  worker  par  excellence, 
domestic  use  of,  6,  59. 

Horse-power,  origin  of  term,  6, 
60. 

Hot  Air  Engine,  Dr.  Stirling's 
efforts  to  invent,  6,  133 ;  limi- 
tations of,  6,  134;  John  Erics- 
son's development  of,  6,  134; 
caloric  engine  of  Svea,  6,  145- 

Houghton,  George  C.,  his  de- 
scription of  the  modern  shoe 
industry,  9,  108. 

Housatonic,  the  sinking  of,  by  a 
submarine,  7,  103;  the  attack 
described,  7,  104. 

Howard,  Luke,  his  paper  on 
clouds,  3,  182;  his  views  con- 
cerning the  formation  of  dew, 
3,  183. 

Howe,  Elias,  Jr.,  invents  the 
practical  commercial  sewing- 
machine,  9,  93:  struggles  of 
the  inventor  and  final  tri- 
umph, 9,  95. 

Hudson,  Henry,  his  heroic  effort 
to  find  the  fabled  northwest 
passage,  7,  47- 

Hughes,  Prof.  D.  E.,  his  inde- 
pendent invention  of  a  coherer 
of  service  in  wireless  telegra- 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


phy,  8,  53 ;  invents  a  tele- 
phone transmitter  8,  84. 

Hughlings- Jackson,  Dr.,  studies 
of  epilepsy,  4,  272. 

Hugon,  M.  P.,  gas  engine  of,  6, 
136. 

Hulls,  Jonathan,  patented  a 
marine  engine,  7,  66. 

Humboldt,  Alexander,  his  me- 
moir on  isothermal  lines  and 
the  distribution  of  heat,  3, 
192 ;  made  practicable  a  truly 
scientific  study  of  compara- 
tive climatology,  3,  194; 
called  our  atmosphere  an 
"aerial  ocean,"  3,  195;  his 
theories  about  the  Gulf 
Stream,  3,  196. 

Runnings,  inventor  of  the  first 
long-distance  transmitter,  8, 
84. 

Hunt,  Walter,  inventor  of  a 
sewing-machine  using  a  needle 
with  the  eye  near  the  point,  9, 
92. 

Hunter,  John,  physiologist  and 
surgeon,  4,  78;  his  discovery 
of  lymphatics,  4,  80;  his  dis- 
covery of  the  "collateral  cir- 
culation" of  the  blood,  4, 
82 ;  his  operation  for  aneurism, 
4,  84;  surgeon-extraordinary 
to  the  king,  4,  86 ;  his  theories 
of  the  action  of  gastric  juices, 
4,  89;  proved  the  action  of 
digestive  fluid  after  death, 
4,  90,  91. 

Hunter,  William,  physician  and 
anatomist,  4,  77;  his  love  of 
controversy,  4,  78. 

Hutton,  Dr.  James,  claimed  that 
the  face  of  nature  is  under- 
going metamorphic  changes, 
3,  118;  the  bases  of  the  pres- 
ent continents  were  being  laid 
in  ancient  sea  beds,  3,  119; 
the  agency  which  solidified  the 
ocean  beds  is  subterranean 
heat,  3,  120;  the  destruction 
of  our  land  inevitable,  3,  122 ; 
marks  of  marine  animals  in 
solid  parts  of  the  earth,  3, 
124 ;  the  elevation  of  the  land 
above  the  water  was  caused 


by  the  expansion  of  heated 
matter,  3,  128;  finds  no  ves- 
tige of  a  beginning — no  pros- 
pect of  an  end,  3,  129;  his 
theories  hostile  to  sacred  his- 
tory, 3,  130;  his  theories  ac- 
cepted, 3,  140;  his  theory  con- 
cerning the  vapor  of  water,  3, 
178. 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henry,  re- 
views the  work  of  Professor 
Marsh,  3,  112;  accepts  Dar- 
win's theory  4,  174;  his  es- 
timate of  Darwin's  accom- 
plishments, 4,  178. 

Huygens,  Christian,  2,  218;  im- 
provement of  the  telescope,  2, 
218,  219;  his  laws  of  motion, 
2,222;  " pneumatical  experi- 
ments," 2,  222;  a  resident  of 
France,  2,  224;  his  micro- 
meter, 2,  254;  application 
of  coiled  balance-spring  to 
watches,  2,  256;  originator  of 
the  general  doctrine  of  undu- 
lation as  the  explanation  of 
light,  3,  224;  gave  the 
first  hint  of  the  existence 
of  ether,  3,  284;  attempted 
to  make  practical  use  of  the 
power  set  free  by  the  ex- 
plosion of  gunpowder,  6,  134. 

Hydrochloric  acid  liquefied,  6, 
40. 

Hydrogen,  liquefied  by  Profes- 
sor Dewar,  6,  43 ;  approach  to 
the  absolute  zero  made  by,  6, 
69. 

Hydrophobia,  Pasteur's  inocula- 
tions to  prevent,  4,  240;  slow 
in  manifesting  itself,  6,  182. 

Hydrostatic   press,  principle   of 

6,  74-75- 
Hygiene,    investigations    in,    at 

the  Berlin  Institute,  6,  196. 
Hypnotism,   phenomena  of,   4, 

269. 

IATROCHEMICAL  school  of  medi- 
cine, 2,  1 86. 

latrophysical  school  of  medicine 
2,  187. 

Illustrations,  the  reproduction 
of,  8,  184;  wood-engraving. 


[188] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


8,  184;  copper-  and  steel- 
plate  engravings,  8,  192; 
etching,  8,  195;  mezzotint, 
8,  196;  the  invention  of 
lithography,  8,  197;  intro- 
duction of  process  work,  8, 
202;  discovery  of  photogra- 
phy by  Daguerre,  8,  202; 
the  half-tone,  8,  205;  three- 
color  process  of  reproduction, 
8,  21 1 ;  intaglio  processes, 
8,  217;  the  photogravure, 
8,217. 

ImhStep,  the  demi-god,  con- 
sidered to  be  the  creator  of 
medical  knowledge,  1,  49. 

Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
St.  Petersburg,  2,  202. 

Inclined  plane,  known  to  an- 
tiquity, principle  of,  use  in 
pyramid-building,  6,  37;  law 
of,  screw  and  wedge  a  form 
of,  6,  38;  hatchet,  knife- 
blade,  and  saw,  forms  of,  6, 

Induction,    electric,    discovered 

by  Hauksbee,  2,  259-262. 
Inductive  versus  deductive  rea- 
soning, 5,  235-238. 
Industrial    problems  of    to-day 

and  to-morrow,  6,  316. 
Industrial       Revolution,       An, 

Chapter  I,  9,  5. 
Inorganic    matter,    possibilities 

of,  6,  224. 
Insane,  reforms  in  caring  for,  4, 

245- 
Instruments  of  Precision  in  the 

Age  of  Newton,  Chapter  XIII, 

2,  252. 

Iron  Age,  6,  9. 
"Isomerism,"   word   coined   by 

Berzelius,  4,  62. 
Italic  leaders   of  thought,    Xe- 

nophanes,    Parmenides,    and 

Empedocles,  1,  114. 
Ives,  F.  E.,  perfected  the  process 

of     color-printing,     8,     212; 

invented    a    slide-carrier    for 

the  camera,  8,  238. 


JABLOCHKOFF,  M.,  Russian  offi- 
cer who  invented  a  practical 
electric  light,  6,  224. 

[189] 


Jacobs,  a  Dutch  farmer  whose 
children  first  found  diamonds 
in  South  Africa,  9,  314. 

Jackson,  Dr.  Charles  T.,  claimed 
the  discovery  of  ether,  4,  215; 
his  interest  in  the  possibilities 
of  electricity,  8,  19;  discusses 
the  telegraph  with  Morse; 
contests  Morse's  claim  to  the 
invention  of  the  telegraph,  8, 
2 1 ;  Sabine's  summary  of  the 
position  of  Doctor  Jackson, 

8,    21. 

Jacquard,  the  aerial  voyage  of 
the,  7,  260. 

Jacquard,  Joseph  Marie,  inven- 
tor of  a  loom  for  weaving 
elaborate  patterns,  9,  49; 
early  life  of  the  inventor,  9, 
49;  his  machines  destroyed 
by  mobs  of  workmen,  9,  51. 

Jaegels,  his  ascent  in  a  metal 
balloon,  7,  264. 

Janney,  Eli,  automatic  car- 
coupler  invented  by,  7,  148; 
technical  description  of  this 
coupling,  7,  149. 

Jansen,  Zacharias,  inventor  of 
the  microscope,  2,  77. 

Jansen,  photographic  revolver 
invented  by,  8,  250. 

Jeffries,  made  a  daring  balloon 
ascension  with  Blanchard,  7, 
239. 

Jena,  the  "dream  city,"  6, 
145;  the  streets  of,  6,  146; 
the  market-place  of,  6,  147; 
its  world-renowned  univer- 
sity, 5,  148. 

Jenner,  his  discovery  of  inocula- 
tion for  preventing  small-pox, 
4,  190;  his  famous  paper  on 
vaccination,  4,  194;  his  first 
inoculation,  4,  196;  recep- 
tion of  the  discovery  in  Eu- 
rope, 4,  197. 

Jenny,  architect  who  designed 
the  first  steel-frame  sky- 
scraper in  1884,  9,  165. 

Jessop,  William,  substituted 
flanged  wheels  for  flanged 
rails,  7,  120. 

Jet-stone,  supposed  to  possess  a 
magical  property  that  would 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


cure  epilepsy,  hysteria,  and 
gout,  1,  277. 

John  Mason,  the,  an  omnibus 
horse-car  operated  on  the 
first  street  railway,  7,  176. 

Joly,  Dr.  Robert,  first  screen- 
plate  process  in  color-pho- 
tography put  forward  by, 
8,  242;  description  of  his 
plates,  8,  242. 

Jones,  Chapman,  method  of 
color-photography  outlined 


by,  8,  247. 

Joseph  and  Roderick,  and  Mar- 
tin de  Bohemia,  credited 
with  inventing  the  apparatus 
known  as  the  astrolabe,  7,  19. 

Jouffroy,  Marquis  de,  experi- 
ments with  steam-propelled 
boats,  7,  66. 

Joule,  James  Prescott,  the  work 
of,  3,  256;  his  theory  of  the 
conservation  of  energy,  3, 
257;  hispaper  of  1843,  3,  269; 
his  theories  on  the  calorific 
effect  of  magneto-electricity 
and  the  mechanical  value  of 
heat,  3,  270. 

Julian  calendar,  it  follows  the 
Alexandrian  theory,  giving  us 
the  familiar  leap-year,  1,  36. 

Julien,  E.,  the  storage-battery 
line  built  by,  7,  188. 

Julius  Caesar,  water  mills  prob- 
ably introduced  in  Rome 
during  time  of,  6,  70. 

Jupiter,  its  moons  discovered  by 
Galileo,  2,  79. 

Just,  in  connection  with  Hana- 
man,  patented  a  lamp  using 
incandescent  filament,  6,  235. 

KADMUS,  a  Phoenician,  who,  ac- 
cording to  a  Greek  legend, 
brought  the  knowledge  of 
letters  to  Europe,  1,  86. 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  II.  and  Deutsch- 
land,  German  ships  that  for 
several  years  held  the  ocean 
record  for  speed,  7,  82. 

Kant,  Immanuel,  his  conception 
of  the  formation  of  the  world, 
3,  26;  his  theories  of  the 
solar  system,  3,  27;  defects 


in  his  conception,  3,  30;  and 
transmutation  of  species,  4, 
149. 

Kay,  John,  inventor  of  the  fly- 
ing shuttle,  9,  42;  what  his 
invention  meant  to  the  com- 
mercial world,  9,  42. 

Kay,  Robert,  inventor  of  the 
drop-box"  used  in  weaving, 
9,  43- 

Kelly,     William,     invented      a 


method  of  running  the  spin- 
ning-mule by  water-power,  9, 

Kelvin,  Lord,  his  theory  of  the 
developmental  changes  of  the 
earth,  3,  165;  he  endorses 
Joule's  theories  on  the  conser- 
vation of  energy,  3,  272;  his 
doctrine  of  the  dissipation  of 
energy,  3,  276;  declared  that 
he  had  learned  nothing  new 
concerning  the  nature  of 
energy  in  fifty  years,  3,  279; 
his  speculation  about  ether, 
3,  288;  his  doctrine  of  the 
vortex  theories  of  atoms,  3, 
290;  his  estimate  of  the  size 
of  the  molecules  floating  in  the 
air,  3,  298;  theories  of  radio- 
activity, 6,  1 06;  explanation 
of  the  continued  heat  of  the 
sun,  6,  207;  estimate  of  the 
heat-giving  life  of  the  sun,  6, 
208;  computations  as  to  the 
age  of  the  earth's  crust,  6, 
210;  computations  of  the 
rigidity  of  the  telluric  struc- 
ture, 5,  212;  inventor  of  the 
modern  compass,  7,  14;  his 
connection  with  the  laying  of 
the  Atlantic  cable,  8,  30;  ul- 
timate success  of  cable-laying 
in  a  large  measure  due  to  his 
inventions,  8,33;  invents  the 
mirror-speaking  instrument, 
or  "marine  galvanometer," 
8,  38;  invention  of  the  siphon 
recorder,  8,  45; 

Kepler,  Johann,  life  and  work, 
2,  70;  theory  of  planetary 
distances,  2,  73;  assistant  of 
Tycho  Brahe,  2,  74;  Kepler's 
Laws,  2,  75;  studies  of  re- 

[I90] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


fraction  of  light,  2,  118; 
Keplerian  telescope,  2,  253. 

Kertland,  Philip,  began  the 
manufacture  of  shoes  at  Lynn 
9,  108. 

Khammurabi,  Babylonian  king, 
his  famous  code  concerning 
physicians,  1,  76. 

Kirchhoff,  with  Bunsen,  perfect- 
ed the  spectroscope,  4,  69. 

Kitasato,  Professor,  his  studies 
in  the  embryos  of  fishes,  6, 
132. 

Knife-blade,  a  modification  of 
the  inclined  plane,  principle 
of,  6,  54- 

Knitting-machinery.  See  Tex- 
tiles. 

Knowledge,  Natural,  The 
Royal  Society  of  London  for 
Improving,  Chapter  II,  6,  14. 

Koch,  Dr.  Robert,  corrobora- 
tion  of  Devaine's  discovery, 
4,  228;  work  of,  in  the  Berlin 
Institute  of  Hygiene,  6,  194. 

Koenig,  Friedrich,  his  mano- 
metric  capsules  of  use  to 
Graham  Bell  in  his  experi- 
ments with  the  telephone,  8, 
78;  practical  solution  of 
cylinder  press  credited  to,  8, 
123. 

Kowalski,  Professor,  experi- 
mented unsuccessfully  in  com- 
mercial extraction  of  nitro- 
gen from  the  air,  6,  306. 

Kratzenstein,  Christian  Gott- 
lieb, used  electricity  in  medi- 
cal practice,  2,  278. 

Krayne,  Robert,  his  method  of 
making  line  color-screens,  8, 
242. 

Krebs  and  Renard,  invented 
La  France,  a  motor-driven 
balloon,  7,  264. 

Kriiger,  Gottlieb,  suggests  the 
medicinal  use  of  electricity, 
2,  278. 

Krupp  steel,  its  introduction  and 
important  uses,  6,  295. 

Krypton,  discovery  of,  5,  87. 

Kunz,  George  F.,  his  striking 
illustration  of  the  power  of 
radium,  6,  101. 


Kuzel,  one  of  the  experimenters 
with  incandescent  filament 
lamps,  6,  235. 

LABOR,  physical,  modern  atti- 
tude toward;  always  dis- 
tasteful to  mankind,  con- 
sidered a  disgrace  and  a  curse 
by  ancient  philosophers ; 
avoidance  of,  by  the  more 
intelligent  of  mankind,  6,  26; 
task  of  science  to  reduce,  6, 
28. 

Laboratory,  The  Marine  Bio- 
logical, at  Naples,  Chapter  V, 
6, 113. 

Laboratories,  Physical,  and 
Physical  Problems,  Chapter 
IV,  6,  73. 

Laboratories,  Some  Medical,  and 
Medical  Problems,  Chapter 
VII,  6,  178. 

Laborde,  M.,  his  theories  of 
radio-activity,  5,  106. 

Labpuchere,  flew  for  ten  minutes 
with  two  passengers  at  Mour- 
melon,  7,  298. 

Lace-making.    See  Textiles. 

Ladd,  constructed  dynamo-elec- 
tric machines,  6,  178. 

Laennec,  Ren6  Th6pphile  Hya- 
cinth, his  invention  of  the 
stethoscope,  4,  201;  his 
Traite  d  Auscultation  Mediate, 
4,  202. 

La  France,  motor-driven  balloon 
of  Renard  and  Krebs,  7,  264. 

Lake,  Simon,  invented  practical 
diving-boats,  7,  107. 

Lallament,  Pierre,  a  bicycle 
invented  by,  7,  155. 

Lamarck,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  stu- 
dent of  fossil  shells  about  Paris 
while  Cuvier  was  studying 
the  vertebrates,  3,  93;  his 
advocacy  of  a  theory  of  organ- 
ic evolution,  4,  150;  his  the- 
ories formulated  in  the  im- 
portant work  Philosophic 
Zoologique,  in  1809,  4,  152. 

Lambert,  Professor,  his  esti- 
mate of  the  gyroscope,  7,  224. 

Lamp,  burning  oil,  as  used  in 
ancient  times,  6,  202;  a 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


broad  flat  wick  for,  invented 
by  Leger,  in  1783,  6,  204; 
adaptation  of  the  Argand 
form  of  burner,  6,  205;  of 
Quinquet,  6,  205;  Carcel's 
improvement  of  Quinquet's 
lamp,  6,  205;  using  turpen- 
tine and  known  as  "Cam- 
phine"  lamp,  6,  206;  modern 
petroleum  lamps  introduced, 
6,  206;  Safety,  of  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy,  6,  249. 

Lane-Fox,  an  early  experimenter 
with  electric  light,  6,  228. 

Langen,  Herr  E.  (with  N.  A. 
Otto)  made  important  im- 
provement in  piston  arrange- 
ment of  gas  engine,  6,  136. 

Langley,  his  early  experiments 
and  discoveries,  7,  275;  the 
flying-machine  of,  7,  284. 

Lanston,  Tolbert,  monotype 
machine  invented  by,  8,  145. 

Laplace,  Pierre  Simon,  Marquis 
de,  removed  the  last  doubts 
as  to  the  solidarity  of  New- 
tonian hypothesis  of  uni- 
versal gravitation,  3,  31;  his 
explanation  of  the  planet- 
ary system,  3,  32;  his  con- 
ception as  to  the  formation  of 
suns  and  stars,  known  as  the 
"nebular  hypothesis,"  3,  35; 
his  reasoning  about  the  ring 
of  Saturn,  3,  38;  he  thinks 
comets  are  strangers  to  our 
planetary  system,  ibid.;  ex- 
plains why  the  movements  of 
comets  escape  this  general 
law,  3,  39;  thought  that  the 
rings  of  Saturn  were  solid,  3, 

Lartet,  Edouard,  his  discovery 
of  fossils  in  the  caves  of 
Dordogne,  3,  104. 

Latham,  Hubert,  his  attempt  to 
fly  across  the  English  Chan- 
nel, 7,  294. 

La  Tour,  Cagniard,  discovered 
pepsin  in  the  gastric  juice, 
4,  129;  studies  of  micro- 
organism, 4,  218. 

Latitude,  measuring  a  degree 
of,  7,  34- 


Laudanum,  its  introduction,  2, 
190. 

Lavoisier,  Antoine  Laurent,  the 
founder  of  modern  chemistry, 
4.  28-36;  first  blow  to  the 
phlogiston  theory,  4,  31;  ex- 
periments in  respiration,  4,  93. 

Law  of  Gravitation,  Newton  and 
the,  Chapter  XI,  2,  236. 

Law  of  valency,  4,  63. 

Lawson,  H.  J.,  the  geared  bi- 
cycle introduced  by,  7,  155. 

Layard,  Sir  Henry,  his  excava- 
tions on  the  site  of  ancient 
Nineveh  brought  to  light  a 
most  important  collection  of 
tablet  books,  8,  103;  for 
fuller  account  of  these  docu- 
ments see  4,  292. 

Lea,  Gary,  improved  the  collo- 
dion-emulsion process,  8,  232. 

Leblanc,  Abb6,  constructed  an 
instrument  for  reproducing 
the  human  voice,  but  which 
failed  as  a  sound-producer,  8, 
94. 

Lebon,  Frenchman  who  early 
experimented  with  illuminat- 
ing gas,  6,  207. 

Le  Bris,  the  flying-machine  of, 
7,  248. 

Lee,  Rev.  William,  inventor  of 
the  knitting-machine,  9,  56. 

Leeuwenhoek  discovers  bacteria, 
2,  179. 

Leger,  a  new  type  of  burner  and 
wick  for  the  oil  lamp  invented 
by  him  in  1783,  6,  204. 

LeGray,  glass  negatives  im- 
proved by,  8,  229. 

Leibnitz,  Gottfried  Wilhelm, 
estimate  of  his  work,  2,  197; 
theory  of  monads,  2,  198; 
president  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  at  Berlin, 

2,  202. 

Leidy,  Joseph,  found  the  cysts 
of  trichina  in  pork,  4,  207; 
one  of  the  chief  explorers  of 
the  fossils-beds  of  America, 

3,  1 06;    at  least   a  tentative 
believer    in    evolution  before 
Darwin's    exposition    of    the 
origin  of  species,  4,  166. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Lenoir,  J.  J.  E.,  inventor  of  the 
first  practical  gas  engine,  6, 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  2,  47;  denial 
of  the  sun's  motion,  2,  48; 
his  steam-engine,  ibid.;  his 
camera  obscura,  ibid.;  his  geo- 
logical observations,  2,  50; 
gave  new  impulse  to  mechan- 
ical invention ;  produces  earli- 
est type  of  explosion  engine, 
6,  83;  made  sketches  and 
possibly  models  of  flying 
machines,  7,  227. 

Lepsius,  Karl  Richard,  ex- 
tended the  study  of  the 
famous  trilingual  inscrip- 
tions of  the  Rosetta  Stone,  1, 
27;  determined  that  the  an- 
cient stadium  was  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  meters,  1,  231. 

Le  Sage,  George  Louis,  his  the- 
ory of  gravitation,  5,  214. 

Leupold,  his  non-condensing 
high-pressure  engine,  6,  112. 

Leyassor,  M.  (with  M.  Panhard), 
invented  a  modern  gasoline 
motor,  6,  140;  applied  the 
Daimler  motor  to  four- 
wheeled  vehicles  and  thus 
developed  the  automobile, 

Levy,  Dr.  Max,  invented  a  ma- 
chine for  making  half-tone 
illustrations,  8,  207. 

Lewes,  George  Henry,  his  trans- 
lation of  Ritter's  rendering  of 
part  of  the  poem  of  Parmen- 
ides  concerning  the  origin  of 
man,  1,  131. 

Lever,  principle  of,  modifica- 
tions of,  6,  29;  laws  of,  credit 
of  discovering  given  to 
Archimedes,  three  classes  of, 
6,  30;  modified  forms  of,  in 
hand  tools,  6,57. 

Ley  den  jar,  invention  of,  by 
Von  Kleist,  2,  280. 

Liebermann,  effected  the  syn- 
thesis of  alizarine,  8,  313. 

Liebig,  Justus,  isomerism  proved 
by,  4,  62 ;  school  of  physiolog- 
ical chemistry,  under  guid- 
ance of,  4,  128;  his  studies  of 


animal  heat,  4,  131-135;  his 
doctrine  of  fermentation,  4, 
219. 

Light,  heat,  and  atmospheric 
pressure,  2,  117. 

Light,  Modern  Theories  of  Heat 
and,  Chapter  VI,  3,  206. 

Light,  Newton  and  the  Com- 
position of,  Chapter  XI,  2, 
225. 

Light,  the  wave  theory  of, 
Thomas  Young  and,  3,  215- 
225;  endorsed  by  Fresnel  and 
Arago,  3,  226;  opposition  to, 
ibid. ;  accepted  by  French 
Academy,  3,  227. 

Lighting,  Artificial,  Chapter  XI, 
6,201. 

Lighting  Artificial,  the  use  of  the 
torch  by  primitive  man,  6, 
202;  lamps  used  in  ancient 
times,  6,  202;  lamps  used  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  6, 
203;  by  Gas,  6,  207;  early 
experiments  by  Rev.  Joseph 
Clayton,  and  Dr.  Stephen 
Hales,  6,  207;  the  possibility 
of  using  gas  for  illumination 
demonstrated  by  William 
Murdoch,  in  1798,  6,  207;  the 
incandescent  gas  mantle,  6, 
208;  the  introduction  of 
acetylene  gas,  6,  212;  Davy 
and  the  first  electric  light,  6, 
220;  the  Jablochkoff  can- 
dle, 6,  223;  Brush's  im- 
proved arc  light,  6,  226;  Edi- 
son and  the  incandescent 
lamp,  6,  228;  tungsten  and 
tantalum  lamps,  6;  234; 
the  mercury-vapor  light  of 
Hewitt,  6,  236. 

Lightning,  proved  to  be  elec- 
tricity by  Franklin,  2,  293; 
amount  of  electricity  gener- 
ated by,  6, 161. 

Lightning-rod,  invented  by  Ben- 
jamin Franklin  in  1750,  2, 290. 

Lilienthal,  Otto,  the  flying  ma- 
chine of,  7,  279. 

Lilly,  associated  with  Dr.  Colton 
in  the  construction  and  opera- 
tion of  a  small  model  loco- 
motive, 7,  179. 


[193] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


Lime-light,  method  of  pro- 
ducing, 6,  209. 

Linde,  Professor,  improved 
method  of  liquefaction  of 
gases,  6,  44- 

Linnaeus,  Natural  History  to 
the  Time  of,  Chapter  XV,  2, 
297. 

Linnseus,  Carolus,  member  of 
Royal  Swedish  Society  2, 
203;  life  and  work,  2,  299- 

3°3- 

Lippershey,  Johannes,  inventor 
of  the  telescope,  2,  78,  252. 

Lippmann,  Prof.  Gabriel,  pro- 
posed a  direct  method  of 
color-photography,  8 ,  237; 
devised  a  method  of  employ- 
ing the  minute  spectra  of 
prisms,  8,  246. 

Liquefaction  of  gases,  6,  40-46; 
improved  methods  of,  6,  44; 

nciples  and  experiments, 
.6-60;  results  and  antici- 
pations of  the,  6,  6 1-7  2;  use 
of,  in  the  refrigeration  of  foods, 
6,  61. 

Liquefied  air,  6,  45,  46,  63-67. 

Liquid  chlorine,  Faraday  pro- 
duces, 6,  39. 

Liquid  Fuel,  7,  90;  its  advan- 
tages over  coal,  7,  91;  its 
disadvantage,  7,  91. 

Lister,  Joseph  Jackson,  experi- 
ments with  the  microscope,  4, 
112;  studies  of  lenses,  4,  113; 
shape  of  the  red  corpuscles 
settled  by,  4,  114. 

Lister,  Dr.  J  oseph  (Lord  Lister) , 
discovery  of  antisepsis,  4, 
229;  and  surgery,  4,  231; 
president  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London,  6,  16. 

Lithography,  invented  by  Alois 
Senefelder,  8,  198;  materials 
used  in,  8,  199. 

Liver,  the  important  share  of, 
in  preparing  food  for  ab- 
sorption, 4,  130;  not  a  duct- 
less organ,  4,  137;  blood 
undergoes  a  change  in  passing 
through,  4,  138;  cells,  ibid. 

Living  forms,  question  as  to,  on 
other  worlds,  6,  220. 


Lockyer,  Sir  Norman,  his  "me- 
teoric hypothesis,"  3,  70; 
does  not  meet  with  unani- 
mous acceptance,  3,  71;  his 
deductions  from  observations 
of  the  sun  and  stars  through 
the  spectroscope,  4,  71;  spec- 
troscopic  study  of  sun  and 
stars,  6,  73;  his  theories,  6, 
75;  study  of  sun-spots,  6,  76; 
studies  of  the  reverse  lines  of 
spectrum,  6,  78;  studied  the 
spectrum  of  the  new  star  that 
appeared  in  the  constellation 
Perseus  in  1901,  6,  79. 

Locomotive,  mining,  6,  257. 
(See  "steam  locomotive.") 

Lodge,  Sir  Oliver,  and  the  in- 
stability of  the  atom,  6,  109; 
experiments  of,  8,  53. 

Log,  the  use  of,  on  ships,  7,  16. 

Logical  induction  versus  hasty 
generalization,  6,  239-242. 

Lome,  Dupuy  de,  the  dirigible 
balloon  of,  7,  263. 

Long,  Dr.  Crawford  W.,  claim  to 
the  discovery  of  ether,  4.  215. 

Long-distance  telephone,  8,  84. 

Longitude,  method  of  ascertain- 
ing, 7,  31. 

Loom,  development  of  the 
power-loom,  9,  43 ;  the  power- 
looms  suggested  by  the 
Frenchmen,  de  Gennes  and 
Vauconson,  9,  43;  practical 
loom  invented  by  Dr.  Ed- 
mund Cartwright,  9,  44; 
events  leading  up  to  the  in- 
vention of  the  power-loom, 
9,  45;  the  perfected  power- 
loom,  9,  48;  the  Jacquard 
loom,  9,  49;  the  Northrop 
loom,  9,  51. 

Lotze,  Dr.  Hermann,  his  Medi- 
zinische  Psychologic,  oder 
Physiologic  der  Seele,  4,  263. 

Louis,  the  "statistical  method" 
introduced  by,  4,  203. 

Louis  XIV,  his  practical  joke  on 
Charles  II,  9,  62. 

Lovejoy,  in  association  with 
Bradley  experimented  with 
the  commercial  extraction  of 
nitrogen,  6,  306. 


[194] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Low-Temperature  Researches, 
The  Royal  Institution  and 
the,  Chapter  III,  6,  29. 

Low  temperature,  experiments 
with,  5,  39-41;  electrical  and 
magnetic  conditions  at,  6, 
56;  changes  in  color  of  sub- 
stances at,  6,  57;  substances 
made  luminous  by,  6,  58; 
effect  of,  upon  the  strength  of 
materials,  6,  59;  decrease  of 
chemical  activity  at,  5,  60; 
approach  to  the  absolute  zero, 
6,  69. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John  (later  Lord 
Avebury),  a  recruit  to  the 
Darwinian  theory,  4,  175. 

Ludolff,  Christian  Friedrich,  ex- 
periment with  the  electric 
spark,  2,  276;  6,  219. 

Lumiere,  Auguste,  his  work  in 
color-photography,  8,  243. 

Lumiere,  Louis,  his  work  in 
color-photography,  8,  243. 

Lure  of  the  Unknown,  The,  7, 

Lusitania,  description  of  turbine 
engines  of,  6,  128;  in  size  and 
speed  marks  an  epoch  in 
navigation,  7,  82. 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  repudiated  all 
thought  of  catastrophism,  3, 
88;  he  adopted  and  extended 
the  Huttonian  doctrine,  3, 
92;  his  theories  are  changed 
by  Darwin's  Origin  of  Species, 
3,  97;  claimed  that  past 
changes  of  the  earth's  surface 
have  been  like  present 
changes,  3, 141;  accepts  Dar- 
win's theory,  4,  174. 

Lyncean  Society,  2,  200. 

McDonald,  Arthur,  his  auto- 
mobile record  at  Ormonde, 
7,165. 

McDonough,  J.  W.,  produced  a 
practical  screen-plate,  8,  242. 

McKay,  inventor  of  a  machine 
for  sewing  leather,  9,  112. 

MacMillan,  Kirkpatrick,  treadle 
bicycle  invented  by,  7,  155. 

Magdeburg  sphere,  name  given 
to  Von  Guericke's  apparatus 


for  showing  atmospheric  pres- 
sure, 2, 2ii ;  6,  66. 

Magellan,  Ferdinand,  rounded 
the  southern  point  of  South 
America  and  reached  the 
Philippines,  in  1521;  the  cir- 
cumnavigation of  the  globe  by 
his  ships  afforded  an  unchal- 
lengeable demonstration  of  the 
rotundity  of  the  earth,  7,  47. 

Magendie,  Francois,  and  phys- 
ical diagnosis,  4,  203. 

Magnet,  electric,  first  con- 
structed by  Sturgeon,  6,  176; 
constructed  by  Joseph  Henry, 
6,  177;  an  essential  element 
of  the  practical  dynamo,  6, 
174,  180. 

Magnetism,  The  Modern  De- 
velopment of  Electricity  and, 
Chapter  VII,  3,  229. 

Magnetism,  studies  of,  by  Oer- 
sted, 6,  176. 

Magnetized  needle,  constitutes 
the  mariner's  compass,  7,  7. 

Majestic,  one  of  the  first  twin- 
screw  boats  to  make  ocean- 
records,  7,  Si. 

Malpighi,  Marcello,  demon- 
strated passage  of  blood  from 
arteries  to  veins  through 
capillaries,  2,  178;  dissec- 
tions of  animal  tissues  and 
plants,  2,  297,  298. 

Mammalian  types,  the  living 
fauna  of  Australia  to-day 
existed  in  Europe  and  died 
out  in  the  tertiary  age,  3,  160. 

Man,  struggles  with  nature,  6, 
3-6 ;  the  tool-making  animal, 
6,  6—8;  characterized  by  na- 
ture of  his  implements,  6 ,  8-9 ; 
emancipated  from  thraldom 
of  weather  by  clothing  and 
fire,  6,  10;  becomes  agricul- 
turist, 6,  ii ;  the  ever-insis- 
tent problem  of  his  existence, 
6,  12;  performs  work  by 
muscular  system  alone,  6,  53. 

Mantle,  gas,  method  of  making, 
6,  21 1 ;  use  of  collodion  and 
castor  oil  for  strengthening, 
6,  21 1 ;  Clamond  method  of 
manufacture,  6,  212. 


[195] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


Manufacturing,  methods  at  be- 
ginning nineteenth  century 
compared  with  those  at  end, 

6,    21-22. 

Marchettis,  Peter,  Italian  sur- 
geon, 2,  185. 

Marconi,  Guglielmo,  first  to 
succeed  in  transmitting  wire- 
less messages  across  the  ocean, 
8,  54 ;  methods  and  results  of 
his  system,  8,  56;  his  early 
experiments,  8,  58;  first 
trans- Atlantic  message,  8,  61. 

Marconnet,  Captain,  and  Lieu- 
tenant Fegaunt  made  a  cross- 
country flight  on  a  Farman 
bi-plane,  June,  1910,  7,  298. 

Marey,  Stephen,  his  interest  in 
the  development  of  chrono- 
photography,  8,  250. 

Mariette,  Auguste  Edward,  a 
worker  in  the  field  of  Egyp- 
tian archaeology,  1,  28. 

Marine  Biological  Laboratory 
at  Naples,  The,  Chapter  V, 
6,  113. 

Marine  Biological  Laboratory  at 
Naples,  the  aquarium  in,  5, 
113-119;  arrangement  of 
tanks  and  exhibits  in,  5, 
114;  eels  and  cuttle-fish  in, 
6,  116;  the  octopus  in, 
6,  117;  the  technical  de- 
partment of,  6,  120;  Dr. 
Anton  Dohrn,  founder  of,  5, 
12 1 ;  his  associates,  6,  122; 
collecting  specimens  for,  6, 
123,  124;  methods  of  pre- 
serving jellyfish  in,  6,  127; 
many  nationalities  represent- 
ed among  the  workers  in, 

6,  130;    Dr.  Driesch's  studies 
of  heredity  at,   6,    131;    the 
study  of  chromosomes  at,  6, 
133 ;  experiments  in  the  divis- 
ion of  egg-cells    at,    5,    134; 
publications       of,      6,      139; 
marine  laboratories  of  other 
countries,  6,   143. 

Mariner's  Compass,  7,  7;  con- 
sists of  a  magnetized  needle, 

7,  7;    its  use  antedates  the 
Christian  Era,  7,  7;   develop- 
ment of  7,  8;    Stephen  Bur- 


rows credited  with  the  dis- 
covery that  the  needle  shifts 
its  direction,  7,  9;  Dr.  Halley 
showed  that  the  deviations  of 
the  compass  were  due  to 
some  influence  having  to  do 
with  the  problem  of  terres- 
trial magnetism,  7,  10; 
Graham  discovered  daily 
variations  of  the  compass, 
7,  10;  Wales  observed  fluc- 
tuation of  the  compass  due  to 
the  ship  on  which  it  is  placed, 
7,  ii ;  Matthew  Flinders 
discovered  that  the  influence 
of  the  ship  over  its  compass 
varies  with  the  direction  of 
the  ship's  prow,  7,  11;  Bar- 
low suggested  that  compen- 
sation for  deviation  of  the 
compass  be  effected  by  the 
adjustment  of  bodies  of  iron, 
7,  1 1 ;  Professor  Airy's  use  of 
permanent  magnets  to  effect 
compensation,  7,  n;  dip- 

Eing  of  the  magnetized  needle 
rst  observed  by  Robert  Nor- 
man, 7,  13;  attempt  to  over- 
come the  dip  by  applying  a 
balancing  apparatus,  7,  14; 
modern  compass  invented  by 
Lord  Kelvin,  7,  14. 

Marine  Galvanometer,  invented 
by  Lord  Kelvin,  8,  38. 

Mariotte,  Edme,  studies  of  at- 
mospheric pressure,  2,  210; 
developed  law  of  gaseous 
pressure  independently  of 
Boyle,  6,  66. 

Marsh,  Professor,  his  discovery 
of  the  remains  of  many  verte- 
brates in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region,  3,  106;  his  description 
of  the  fossil  horses,  3,  108. 

Marsh,  quoted  to  the  effect  that 
rust  helps  preserve  iron  em- 
bedded in  concrete,  9,  198. 

Martainville,  suggested  a  change 
in  the  shape  of  the  envelope 
of  the  balloon,  7,  248. 

Martin  de  Bohemia,  and  Roder- 
ick and  Joseph,  credited 
with  inventing  the  apparatus 
known  as  the  astrolabe,  7,  19. 


[196] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Martin,  Thomas  Commerford, 
quoted  in  reference  to  elec- 
trical motors,  7,  179. 

Maskelyne,    Nevil,    astronomer 


great  value  to  the  navigator 
were  published  in  1753,  7,  30. 
Mayow,  John,  experiments  with 
air,  4,  6. 


royal  who  antagonized  Har-      Mediaeval     Science   Among  the 
rison     the     watchmaker.     7,          Arabians,  Chapter  II,  2.13. 
Mediaeval    Science  in  the  West, 


nson 
32 


Maspero,  Gaston  Camille  Charles, 
a  student  of  Egyptian  archae- 


Chapter  III,  2,  31. 
Mediaeval  Ships,  7,  59. 


,     .       . 
ology,  1,  28;     held    that  the      Medical  Laboratories  and  Medi- 


epagomenal  days  were  in  use 
before  the  first  Thinite  dynas- 
ty, 1,  36- 

Masson,  M.,  French  physicist 
who  explained  the  source  of 
incandescence  in  electric  light, 
6, 223. 

Matter,  The  Ether  and  Ponder- 
able, Chapter  IX,  3,  283. 

Matthews,  American  planter 
who  became  a  shoe  manu- 
facturer as  early  as  1648,  9, 
109. 

Maupertius  and  the  idea  of  the 
transmutation  of  species,  4, 
149. 

Mauretania,  British  ship  which 
in  size  and  speed  marks  an 
epoch  in  navigation,  7,  82. 

Maurey,  invented  an  improve- 
ment upon  the  phonauto- 
graph,  8,  79. 

Maurice,  Prince  of  Orange,  a 
passenger  in  the  extraordina- 
ry wind-propelled  vehicle  of 
Servinus,  6,  68. 

Maury,  M.  P.,  his  theory  as  to 
the  causes  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 
3,  196. 

Maxim,  Sir  Hiram,  the  flying 
machine  of,  7,  283. 

Mayer,  Dr.  Julius  Robert,  his 
paper  on  "The  Forces  of 
Inorganic  Nature,"  3,  259; 
asserts  that  a  force  once  in  ex- 
istence cannot  be  annihilated, 
3,  263 ;  gave  for  the  first  time 
a  tenable  explanation  of  the 
light  and  heat  of  the  sun  and 
stars,  3,  268;  his  explanation 
of  the  continued  heat  of  the 
sun,  6,  206. 

Mayer,  Johann  Tobias,  German 
astronomer 


cal  Problems,  Some,  Chapter 
VII,  6,  178. 

Medicine,  associated  with 
charms  and  incantations  as 
practised  in  ancient  Egypt, 
1,  46;  equally  so  in  Baby- 
lonia-Assyria, 1,  70;  the  code 
of  Khammurabi  throws  light 
on  the  methods  of  the  physi- 
cian of  ancient  Babylonia,  1, 
76;  in  Greece,  before  the 
time  of  Hippocrates,  a  mix- 
ture of  religion,  necromancy, 
and  mysticism,  1,  170;  the 
sick  were  carried  to  temples 
of  the  god  of  medicine, 
^Esculapius,  and  took  reme- 
dies revealed  to  them  in 
dreams  of  the  god,  1,  171; 
many  of  the  wealthy  Greek 

?hysicians  had  dispensaries, 
,  173;  Hippocrates  and  his 
reforms,  1,  174;  Alexandrian 
medicine,  1,  194;  Galen  and 
Roman  medicine,  1,  272; 
Arabian  medicine,  2 ,  2 1 .  For 
the  development  of  medicine 
from  the  sixteenth  century 
to  the  present  time,  see  the 
preceding  reference  and  the 
three  succeeding  ones.  See 
also  the  chapters  on  physiol- 

Medicine  in  the  Sixteenth  and 
Seventeenth  Centuries,  Chap- 
ter VIII,  2,  181. 

Medicine,  Eighteenth-Century, 
Chapter  VII,  4,  182. 

Medicine,  Nineteenth-Century, 
Chapter  VIII,  4,  199. 

Mees,  Dr.,  outlines  the  probable 
future  of  color-photography, 
Tobias,  German  8,  247. 

whose   tables   of      Mena,  king  of  Egypt,  1,  28 


[197] 


KEY  AND   INDEX 


Menant,  Joachim,  on  the  devel- 
opment of  a  rudimentary 
science  of  natural  history 
among  the  Babylonians,  1,  75. 

Mendeleeff,  Dmitri,  attention 
drawn  to  the  "law  of  oc- 
taves," which  he  elaborated 
into  a  famous  system,  under 
title  of  the  "periodic  law," 
4,68. 

Mercator,  Gerardus,  brought 
the  art  of  map-making  to 
perfection,  7,  30. 

Mercury- Vapor  light,  6,  236. 

Mergenthaler,  Ottmar,  the  lino- 
type machine  invented  by,  8, 
142. 

Mesopotamia,  named  by  the 
Greeks,  1,  56;  its  civilization 
fully  on  a  par  with  that  of 
Egypt  1,  59;  its  earliest  in- 
habitants were  an  alien  race, 
1,  60 :  the  scientific  attain- 
ments o  its  inhabitants,  the 
Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  1, 
61-85. 

Metamorphosis  of  parts,  4,  140; 
Goethe  studies  of,  in  plants, 
4,  140,  45;  extended  to  the 
animal  kingdom,  4,  146. 

Meteorites,  the  "fire  ball"  of 
1803,  3,  1 68;  Jean  Baptiste 
Biot's  investigation  of,  3, 
169;  scientists  differed  as  to 
its  origin,  ibid.;  Chladni 
thought  that  they  were  one 
in  kind  and  origin  as  the 
"shooting-stars,"  3,  170;  the 
great  shower  of  1833,  3,  171; 
the  "miracle"  of  the  falling 
stone,  3,  172;  invoked  by  Dr. 
Mayer  to  explain  the  contin- 
ued heat  of  the  sun,  5,  206. 

Meteorology,  The  New  Science 
of,  Chapter  V,  3,  168. 

Methods  of  living  and  working 
at  beginning  of  nineteenth 
century  compared  with  those 
at  end,  6,  19-24. 

Meyer  Lothar,  attention  drawn 
to  the  "law  of  octaves,"  4, 
68. 

Mezzotint,  invented  by  Van 
Siegen,  8,  196. 


Michelangelo,  his  famous  aphor- 
ism that  trifles  make  perfec- 
tion illustrated  by  Watt's 
modification  of  the  steam- 
engine,  6,  i 06. 

Micrometer,  the,  Huygens*  in- 
vention of,  2,  254. 

Microscope,  invented  by  Jensen, 
2,  77;  in  the  Newtonian 
period,  2,  258;  attempts  to 
improve  the,  4,  109,  no,  in; 
Dr.  Amici's  reflecting,  4,  112; 
Amici's  improved  compound, 
4,  113;  shape  of  red  cor- 
puscles settled  by  use  of  the, 
4,  114- 

Milky  Way  explained  by  Galileo, 
2,79;  studied  by  Herschel,  3, 
24. 

Miller,  in  1788,  in  associa- 
tion with  Symington  and 
Taylor  constructed  a  boat 
consisting  of  two  hulls,  with  a 
paddle-wheel  between  them 
worked  by  a  steam-engine,  7, 
67. 

Mineral  Depths,  The,  Chapter 
XII,  6,  242. 

Mining,  early  methods  of,  6, 
242 ;  prospecting,  6,  243 ; 
geology  as  an  aid  to  pros- 
pecting, 6,  246;  use  of  the 
diamond  drill  in,  6,  247; 
problems  to  be  consid- 
ered in  mining,  6,  247; 
dangerous  gases  in  mines,  6, 
248;  safety  lamp  invented 
by  Sir  Humphry  Davy, 
249;  methods  of  illuminating 
mines,  6,  251;  ventilation  of 
mines,  6,  252;  drainage  in, 
6,  253;  electric  machinery 
used  in,  6,  253;  use  of  elec- 
tric drills,  6,  254;  traction  in 
mining,  6,  256;  advantages 
of  electric  locomotives  in,  6, 
259;  electric  pumps  used  in, 
6,  263;  use  of  electricity  in 
coal  mining,  6,  266;  coal- 
cutting  machines,  6,  267;  the 
Lake  Superior  mines,  6,  272; 
"overhead  scooping,"  "cav- 
ing," and  "milling,"  6,  273; 
"open-pit"  mining,  6,  274; 


[198] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


use   of   steam   shovel   in,    6,      Mondino  of  Bologna,   "the  re- 
275.  storer  of  anatomy,"  2,  37. 

"Missing  link,"  the,  no  longer      Monier,  Joseph,  reinforced  con- 
crete first  used  by,  9,  197. 
Monorail  Systems,  7,  191. 


missing,  6,  173. 

Mitchell,  his  theory  about  the 
Pleiades,  3,  35. 

Mockhoven,  Dr.  D.  von,  his  ex- 
periments in  photography, 

8,  233. 

Modern  Astronomy,  The  Prog- 
ress of,  Chapter  II,  3,  19. 

Modern  Chemistry,  The  Be- 
ginnings of,  Chapter  II,  4, 
ii. 

Modern  Development  of  Elec- 
tricity and  Magnetism,  The, 
Chapter  VII,  3,  229. 

Modern  Geology,  The  Origin 
and  Development  of,  Chapter 
IV,  3,  116. 

Modern  Sailing  Ships,  7,  60. 

Modern  Theories  of  Heat  and 
Light,  Chapter  VI,  3,  206. 

Mohammed,  his  liberal  view  of 
medicine,  2,  23. 

Mohr,  Karl  Friedrich,  held  the 
doctrine  that  heat,  light,  elec- 
tricity and  magnetism  cannot 
be  created  but  only  made 
manifest  and  transformed  one 
into  one  another;  remem- 
bered, therefore,  as  one  of 
the  originators  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  conservation  of 
energy,  3,  257. 

Mohs,  his  scale  of  the  hardness 
of  gems,  9,  301. 

Moissan,  Professor,  French  phys- 
icist who  first  manufactured 
diamonds  in  the  laboratory, 

9,  328. 

Molecules,  Lord  Kelvin's  esti- 
mate of  the  size  of  those 
floating  in  the  air,  3,  298; 
under  ordinary  circumstances 
they  are  in  a  state  of  intense 
but  variable  vibration,  3,  300; 
they  may  be  in  the  form  of 
gas,  liquid,  or  solid,  3,  301; 
experiments  with  Crookes's 
radiometer,  ibid.;  conditions 
under  which  they  assume  a 
liquid  form,  3,  302;  and 
molecular  action,  6,  79. 


Montague  Mansion,  first  home 

of    British    Museum,     6,     5; 

erection  of  present   building, 

6,  6. 
Montgolfier,  Stephen  and  Joseph 

invented    and    sent    up    the 

first  balloon,  7,  231. 
Moon,    studies   of   the,    3,    48; 

speculations    concerning,     3 , 

49;    the  possible  lengthening 

of  the  day,  3,  50. 
"Moon's  variation,"  determined 

by    Arabian    astronomer,    2, 

17;     rediscovered    by    Tycho 

Brahe,  2,  69. 
Moppert,  translation  of  tablets 

concerning  birth-portents,  1, 

Morgagni,  Giovanni  Battista, 
investigations  in  anatomy,  4, 
76. 

Morrison,  his  translation  of 
Ritter's  rendering  of  part  of 
the  poem  of  Parmenides  on 
the  origin  of  man,  1,  131. 

Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.,  the  father 
of  telegraphy,  8,  17;  early 
experiments  of,  8,  19;  his 
first  public  exhibition  of  the 
telegraph,  8,  20;  his  tele- 
graph used  for  the  first  time, 
8,  21 ;  his  claim  to  invention 
contested,  8,  21;  principle 
of  the  Morse  telegraph,  8,  23 ; 
experiments  with  wireless  tel- 
egraphy, 8,49;  in  connection 
with  Draper  succeeded  in 
making  the  first  photographic 
portrait  ever  taken,  8,  226. 

Morton,  Dr.  W.  T.  G.,  experi- 
ments with  sulphuric  ether 
resulting  in  the  demonstration 
of  its  anaesthetic  power,  4, 
214. 

Moscicki,  Professor,  unsuccess- 
ful experimenter  in  com- 
mercial extraction  of  nitro- 
gen from  the  air,  6,  306. 

Mount  Janiculum,  the  greater 


[199] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


number  of  public  Roman 
mills  located  near,  6,  71. 

Moving  picture  machines, 
vitascope,  vitagraph,  bi- 
ograph,  phantoscope,  kine- 
matograph,  8,  251. 

"Mule,"  the  spinning-machine 
invented  by  Samuel  fCromp- 
ton,  9,  32;  the  self-acting 
mule,  as  invented  by  William 
Eaton  and  improved  by 
Richard  Roberts,  9,  35;  the 
modern  self-acting  mule,  9, 

Miiller,  Johannes,  studies  in 
embryology,  4,  122;  his  dis- 
section of  the  only  available 
specimen  of  amphioxus,  the 
lowest  of  vertebrates,  6,  125. 

Multiple  messages,  8,  25. 

Munck,  localization  of  motor 
centres,  4.  274. 

Mundy,  Arthur  J.,  his  experi- 
ments with  submarine  sig- 
naling, 7,  85. 

Murdoch,  William,  his  inven- 
tion of  a  system  of  gas  light- 
ing, in  1798,  6,  207;  the 
automobile  of,  7,  158. 

Muscles,  4,  137;  extensor,  levers 
of  the  first  class,  6,  30;  flexor, 
levers  of  the  third  class,  6, 
31.  (See  also  muscular  sys- 
tem.) 

Muscular  system,  the  oldest 
machine  in  existence,  com- 
plexity of,  governed  by  laws 
that  apply]  to  other  mecha- 
nisms, property  of  contrac- 
tion, 6,  43;  voluntary  and 
involuntary  muscles,  6,  45- 
49;  nature  of  muscular  ac- 
tion, 6,  49-52;  applications 
of  muscular  energy,  6,  52- 
54;  artificial  aids  to,  6,  54 
seq.;  man  learns  to  use  mus- 
cular system  of  animals,  6, 

59- 

Museum,  The  British,  Chapter 
!.  5,  3. 

Mushet,  Robert,  his  improve- 
ment of  Bessemer's  process 
of  making  steel,  6,  293. 

Musschenbroek,  Pieter  van,  in- 


ventor of  the  Leyden  jar,  2, 
280,  282. 

Mutjmaan,  Professor  W.,  Ger- 
man experimenter  in  the  com- 
mercial extraction  of  nitro- 
gen from  thte  air,  6,  306. 

Muybridge,  Edward,  his  inter- 
est in  the  development  of 
chrono-photography,  8,  250. 

NABONIDUS,  ruler  of  Babylon, 
his  deeds  recorded  on  a  cylin- 
der now  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, 8,  105. 

Nadar,  invented  the  Giant,  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  bal- 
loons ever  constructed,  7, 

Nansen,  Fridtjof,  his  polar  ex- 
pedition referred  to,  7,  48. 

Napier,  cylinder  press  of,  8,  124. 

Naples,  The  Marine  Biological 
Laboratory  at,  Chapter  V,  6, 
113-143. 

Napoleon,  contrasted  with 
James  Watt  as  a  factor  in 
the  progress  of  civilization, 
6,  18;  used  a  system  of  tele- 
graphic signals  during  his 
Russian  campaign,  8,  3. 

Natural  History  to  the  Time  of 
Linnaeus,  Chapter  XV,  2, 
297. 

Natural  Knowledge,  The  Royal 
Society  of  London  for  Im- 
proving, Chapter  II,  6,  14. 

Natural  versus  supernatural,  6, 

233- 

Nautical  Almanac,  The,  7,  37. 

Nautilus,  the,  first  submarine 
boat  built  by  Fulton,  7,  99. 

Navigating  the  Air  (see  also 
Aeroplane),  Chapter  IX,  7, 
226;  Leonardo's  sketches  of 
flying-machines,  7,  227;  the 
flying-machine  of  Besnier,  7, 
228;  the  flight  of  the  Mar- 
quis de  Bacqueville,  7,  229; 
Cavendish's  discovery  of  hy- 
drogen gas  and  its  effect  upon 
aeronautics,  7,  230;  the  ex- 

r'ments  of  Dr.    Black  and 
Priestly,  7,  230;   the  toy 


balloons  of  Ca 


,  230; 
vallo, 


7,  230; 


[200] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


the  balloon  invented  by  the 
Montgolfier  brothers,  7,  231; 
the  first  successful  balloon 
ascension,  7,  232;  Rozier, 
the  first  man  to  make  an 
ascent  in  a  balloon,  7,  235; 
Blanchard's  attempt  to  pro- 
duce a  dirigible  balloon,  7, 
238;  hot-air  balloons  and  hy- 
drogen-gas balloons,  7,  240; 
Rozier,  the  first  victim  of 
ballooning,  7,  241;  progress 
in  mechanical  flight,  7,  244; 
Giffard  "the  Fulton  of  Aerial 
Navigation,"  7,  251;  the 
voyages  of  the  Giant,  con- 
structed by  Nadar,  7,  252; 
early  war  balloons  and  dirigi- 
ble balloons,  7,  257;  the 
use  of  balloons  during  the 
Franco-Prussian  War,  7,  258; 
the  dirigible  balloon  achieved, 
7,262;  the  dirigible  balloon  of 
Dupuy  de  Lome,  7,  263;  the 
aluminum  balloon  of  Herr 
Schwartz,  7,  264;  the  dirigi- 
ble balloons  of  Count  Zeppe- 
lin, 7,  265;  the  balloons  of 
Santos-Dumont,  7,  267. 
Navigation,  limits  of  ancient, 

6,  13- 

Neanderthal  skull,  regarded  by 
modern  zoologists  as  a  dis- 
tinct species  of  man,  3,  102. 

Neilson,  of  Glasgow,  inventor 
of  the  flat  gas  burner,  6, 
208. 

Neolithic  civilization  supplanted 
by  the  invasion  of  cultivated 
people  from  the  East,  1,  31. 

Neon,  discovery  of,  5,  87. 

Neptune,  the  planet,  its  exist- 
ence predicted  by  the  Ger- 
man astronomer  Bessel,  3, 
42 ;  discovered  five  years 
later  by  John  Couch  Adams, 
of  England,  ibid. 

Neptunists,  a  name  given  to  the 
followers  of  Werner,  who 
denied  the  theory  of  the 
metamorphosis  of  rocks,  3, 
131. 

Nerve  cells,  process  of  staining, 
4,  282;  each  an  isolated 


entity,  4,  283 ;  importance  of 
the  discovery  of,  4,  285. 

Nerves,  function  of,  4,  249. 

Newcomb,  Simon,  used  fifty 
thousand  separate  and  dis- 
tinct observations  in  prepar- 
ing his  tables  of  the  sun,  7, 
39. 

Newcomen,  Thomas,  atmos- 
pheric engine  of,  described, 
6,  89;  similarity  to  Papin  en- 
gine, 6,  89;  injection  of  cold 
water  for  condensation,  au- 
tomatic working  of  valve,  6, 
91;  rapid  adoption,  6,  92. 

New  Cosmology — Copernicus  to 
Kepler  and  Galileo,  The, 
Chapter  IV,  2,  52. 

New  Institutions  of  Learning, 
Philosopher  Scientists  and, 
Chapter  IX,  2,  191. 

Newlands,  John  A.  R.,  studies 
of  atomic  weights,  4,  67. 

New  Physics,  Galileo  and  the, 
Chapter  V,  2,  93. 

New  Science  of  Paleontology, 
The,  Chapter  III,  3,  74. 

New  Science  of  Meteorology, 
The,  Chapter  V,  3,  168. 

New  Science  of  Experimental 
Pyschology,  The,  Chapter  IX, 
4,  245. 

New  Science  of  Oriental  Archae- 
ology, The,  Chapter  X,  4,  287. 

Newton  and  the  Composition  of 
Light,  Chapter  XI,  2,  225. 

Newton  and  the  Law  of  Gravi- 
tation, Chapter  XII,  2,  236. 

Newton,  Instruments  of  Pre- 
cision in  the  Age  of,  Chapter 
XIII,  2,  252. 

Newton,  The  Successors  of,  in 
Astronomy,  Chapter  I,  3,  3. 

Newton,  Isaac,  2,  225-251;  dis- 
covery of  the  composition  of 
white  light,  2,227;  the  nature 
of  color,  2,  233;  the  law  of 
gravitation,  2,  236;  further 
computations  in  the  Principia, 
2,  243-250;  invention  of  re- 
flecting telescope,  2,  255; 
supported  the  theory  which 
regarded  light  as  a  corpus- 
cular emanation,  6,  153;  SUS- 


[201] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


gested  a  means  of  measuring 
the  altitude  of  astronomical 
bodies,  7,  20. 

Newton,  Sereno,  sent  to  Eng- 
land to  study  the  workings 
of  cylinder  presses,  8,  124. 

New  York,  the,  one  of  the  first 
twin-screw  boats  to  make 
ocean  records,  7,  81. 

New  Zoology,  Ernst  Haeckel  and 
the,  Chapter  VI,  5,  144- 

Niagara  in  Harness,  Chapter  X, 
6, 183. 

Niagara,  Falls  of,  number  of 
tons  of  water  falling  each 
hour,  6,  184;  electric  power- 
house at,  6,  186;  effect  upon, 
by  the  electric  power-houses, 
6,  192;  transmission  of  elec- 
trical power  from,  6,  194; 
soda  manufactories  at,  6, 
300. 

Niagara,  detailed  by  the  United 
States  Government  to  lay  the 
first  Atlantic  cable,  8,  34. 

Nicdphore  de  Niepce,  discovered 
a  method  of  making  perma- 
nent photographs  by  a  crude 
and  complicated  process,  8, 
222;  his  pictures  regarded  as 
the  first  photographic  pic- 
tures ever  made,  8,  222. 

Nicetas,  taught  that  the  world 
is  in  motion,  1,  216. 

Nicholson,  William  (with  Car- 
lisle), discovered  that  a  gal- 
vanic current  would  decom- 
pose chemicals  in  solution, 
3»  233j  8,  ii ;  decomposed 
water  into  its  elements  hy- 
drogen and  oxygen,  3,  233. 

Nicholson,  William,  cylinder 
press  invented  by,  8,  123. 

Nile,  floods  of,  without  which 
civilization  would  be  impos- 
sible in  Egypt,  1,  35. 

Med 


Nineteenth-Century     Medicine, 

Chapter  VIII,  4,  199. 
Nineteenth  century,  conditions 

of  existence  and  methods  at 

beginning      compared      with 

those  at  end,  6,  19-24. 
Nippur,  expedition  to,  1,  59. 
Nitrate  Beds,  of  Chili,  6,  305. 

[  202] 


Nitrogen,  discovered  by  Caven- 
dish, 6,  87;  method  of  ob- 
taining it  from  the  air,  6 ,  303 ; 
as  a  plant  food,  6,  304;  Pro- 
fessor Birkeland's  discovery 
of  a  method  of  obtaining  it, 
6,  306;  method  discovered 
by  Professors  Kowalski  and 
Moscicki,  at  Freiburg,  6,  306; 
commercial  plant  for  obtain- 
ing it  at  Notodden,  Norway,  6, 
309;  Frank  and  Caro  process 
of  nitrogen  fixation,  6,  309. 

Noble,  Sir  Andrew,  experiments 
with  cordite  in  obtaining  high 
temperatures,  6,  315. 

Norman,  Robert,  "dipping"  of 
the  magnetized  needle  first 
observed  by,  7,  13;  at- 
tempted to  overcome  the  dip 
of  the  magnetic  needle  by 
applying  a  balancing  appara- 
tus, 7,  14. 

Northrop,  inventor  of  the  per- 
fected power-loom,  9,  51. 

Notodden,  Norway,  commercial 
nitrogen  plant  located  at,  6, 

Novelty,  locomotive,  descrip- 
tion of  the,  7,  132. 

Nuclei  of  plant  cells,  discovered 
by  Robert  Brown,  4,  115; 
Dr.  Schleiden  brings  to  popu- 
lar attention,  4,  118. 

Oceanic,  the  first  ocean  grey- 
hound, 7,  80. 

Oersted,  Hans  Christian,  his 
experiments  to  show  the  ef- 
fect of  an  electric  current 
upon  a  suspended  magnetic 
needle,  3,  236;  it  showed  the 
close  relationship  between 
magnetism  and  electricity, 
3,  238;  6,  176;  effects  of  his 
important  discovery,  3,  239. 

Oken,  Lorenz,  extends  the 
doctrine  of  metamorphosis  to 
the  animal  kingdom,  4,  146; 
his  theory  of  spontaneous 
generation  and  evolution  of 
species,  4,  160. 

Oil  Engines,  Gas  and,  6,  132. 

Olbers,    Dr.,   discoverer  of  the 


GENERAL  INDEX 


planet  Pallas,  3,  40;  his 
explosion  theory,  3,  41;  his 
opinion  of  the  great  comet  of 
1680,  3,  52. 

Oldfield,  Barney,  his  record  at 
Ormonde,  the  fastest  mile 
ever  made  by  an  automobile, 
7,  1 66. 

Olympic,  passenger  steamer  of 
the  White-Star  Company,  7, 
90. 

Olzewski's  experiment  with 
liquid  oxygen,  6,  61. 

Opdyke,  George,  pioneer  in  the 
wholesale  manufacture  of 
clothing,  9,  78. 

Organic  Evolution,  Theories  of, 
Chapter  VI,  4,  140. 

Organic  matter,  possibilities  of 
producing,  out  of  inorganic, 
6,  224. 

Organicists,  system  of,  4,  185; 
theory  of,  4,  187. 

Organism,  animal,  comprehen- 
sive view  of,  4,  137;  economy 
of  the,  4,  138. 

Oriental  Archaeology,  The  New 
Science  of,  Chapter  X,  4, 
287-302. 

Oriental  ecclesiasticism  as  a 
cause  of  indifference  to  science 
in  the  dark  age,  2,  4. 

Origin  and  Development  of 
Modern  Geology,  Chapter  III, 
3,  116. 

Otis,  Elisha  G.,  introduced  the 
passenger  elevator,  9,  164. 

Otto,  Dr.  N.  A.  (with  E.  Langen), 
made  important  improve- 
ment in  piston  arrangement 
of  gas  engine,  6,  136;  im- 
proves gas  engine  by  com- 
pressing the  explosive  mix- 
ture in  the  working  cylinder 
before  igniting  it,  6,  138; 
the  gasoline  engine  perfected 

by.   •»  I57- 
Otto   cycle,    as   exemplified   in 

gas  engines,   6,    136,   and  6, 

138. 
Owen,    Richard,    discovers   the 

Trichina  spiralis,  4,  207. 
Ox,  domestication  of,  6,  59. 
Oxygen,  liquefied  by  Pictet  and 


Cailletet,    6,   42;     Olzewski's 
experiments  in,  6,  61. 

PAGE,  C.  C.,  his  efforts  to  pro- 
duce a  storage-battery  car, 

7,  180. 

Paget,  Tames,  his  discovery  of 
the  Trichina  spiralis,  4,  207. 

Painless  dentistry,  experiment 
of  Dr.  Horace  Wells  in  1844, 
4,  213. 

Paints,  Dyes,  and  Varnishes, 
Chapter  XI,  8,  258. 

Paints,  different  from  dyes  and 
varnishes,  8,  258;  principle 
of  the  process  of  levigation, 

8,  259;     the   importance   of 
water  and  the  drying-oils,  8, 
261;      linseed-oil     the     most 
important  to  the  painter,  8, 
262;    turpentine  most  useful 
for  certain  purposes,  8,  264; 
methyl     and     ethyl     alcohol 
used  extensively,  8,  264;  the 
pigments     of     antiquity,     8, 
265;    black  pigments,  8,  267; 
seq.;  white  pigments,  8,  274 
seq.;    some    "chrome"     pig- 
ments, 8,  281;    other  yellow 
mineral    pigments,     8,     285; 
some  brilliant  but  poisonous 
pigments,  8,  288;   green  min- 
eral pigments,   8,   292;    blue 
pigments    from    the    mineral 
world,     8,    295;     the    brown 
mineral     pigments,     8,     302; 
pigments  from  vegetable  and 
animal  sources,   8,  303;    the 
coal-tar  colors,  8,  311. 

Paleontology,  The  New  Science 
of,  Chapter  III,  3,  74-"5- 

Pancreas,  the,  discovery  that 
it  plays  a  part  in  the  process 
of  digestion,  4,  129;  all-im- 
portant in  the  digestion  of 
starchy  and  fatty  foods,  4, 

Panhard,  M.  (with  M.  Levassor), 
invents  a  modern  gasoline 
motor,  6,  140;  applied  the 
Daimler  motor  to  four- 
wheeled  vehicles  and  thus 
developed  the  automobile,  7, 
157- 


[203] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


Paper,  the  manufacture  of,  8, 
159;  materials  for  making, 
8,  161;  making  paper  by 
hand,  8,  162;  "watermark, 
"wove,"  and  "laid"  paper, 
8,  163;  modern  rag-paper,  8, 
164;  paper  from  wood-pulp, 
8,  171;  paper  car- wheels,  8, 
1 80;  papier -mach6,  8,  182. 

Papin,  Denis,  conceived  idea  of 
transmitting  power  by  means 
of  a  piston,  6,  88;  produced 
vacuum  in  cylinder  by  cooling, 
6,  88. 

Pappenheim,  discovered  that 
the  pancreas  shares  in  diges- 
tion, 4,  129. 

Paracelsus  to  Harvey,  From, 
Chapter  VII,  2,  156. 

Paracelsus,  life,  2,  156;  "four 
pillars"  of  his  medical  teach- 
ings, 2,  159;  doctrine  of 
"signatures,"  2,  160;  use  of 
magnets,  2,  161;  condem- 
nation of  surgery,  2,  162; 
his  influence,  2,  162. 

Parasitic  diseases,  discovery  of, 
4,  204;  importance  of  this 
discovery  upon  the  science  of 
medicine,  4,  206. 

Par6,  Ambroise,  "the  father  of 
French  surgery,"  2,  181; 
his  innovations  in  the  field 
of  surgery,  2,  182. 

Parisian  system  of  sewage  dis- 
posal, the,  6,  200. 

Parmenides,  a  distinguished  or- 
nament of  the  Eleatic  School, 
1,  114;  his  theories  con- 
cerning the  earth,  1,  130;  his 
cosmogonic  speculations,  1, 
131. 

Parsons,  C.  A.,  inventor  of 
steam  turbine,  1884,  6,  124; 
description  of  turbine,  6, 
125;  effect  of  his  invention 
upon  navigation,  and  the 
generation  of  power,  6,  127. 

Pascal,  his  barometrical  experi- 
ment, 2,  122. 

Pasteur  Institute,  the,  6,  178- 
186;  the  tomb  of  Pasteur 
within  the  walls,  6,  181;  aims 
and  objects  of,  6,  182;  anti- 


rabic  treatment  given  at,  6, 
183 ;  a  school  of  bacteriology, 
5,  184;  the  regular  staff  of,  6, 
185;  sheep  and  cattle  treated 
at,  ibid. 

Pasteur,  Louis,  architectural  de- 
sign of  a  molecule  illustrated 
by,  4,  63;  refutation  of  the 
doctrine  of  spontaneous  gen- 
eration, 4,  180;  corroborated 
by  Tyndall,  ibid.;  and  the 
germ  theory  of  disease,  4,  217; 
studies  in  fermentation,  4, 
218;  cause  of  the  decay  of 
organic  tissues,  4,  220;  ex- 
periments with  grape  sugar, 
4,  221;  settles  question  of 
bacilli  as  cause  of  anthrax, 
4,  228;  experiments  with 
chicken  cholera,  4,  232;  and 
the  microbe  of  anthrax,  4, 
233;  demonstrates  the  pro- 
tection afforded  animals  by 
inoculation,  4,  238,  239;  his 
inoculations  to  prevent  hydro- 
phobia, 4,  240;  his  tomb,  5,i8i. 

Paul  of  .^Egina,  Byzantine  sur- 
geon, 2,  32. 

Paul,  Lewis,  his  claim  to  the  in- 
vention of  the  first  spinning- 
machine,  9,  22  and  27. 

Paulhan,  Louis,  his  spectacular 
flight  from  London  to  Man- 
chester, 7,  296. 

Payen,  his  discovery  of  the 
composition  of  the  cell  walls 
of  vegetables,  4,  124. 

Peary,  Robert  E.,  discoverer  of 
the  North  Pole,  7,  49. 

Peel,  Robert,  British  States- 
man, employed  James  Har- 
greaves  to  construct  a  card- 
ing-machine,  9,  1 6. 

Peligot,  M.,  describes  the 
method  of  making  window- 
glass,  9,  289. 

Penstock,  at  the  Niagara  Falls 
electrical  power-plant,  6,  188. 

Pepsin,  an  active  principle  in 
gastric  juice,  4,  129;  de- 
tected by  Spratt  and  Boyd, 
ibid. 

Percussion,  Piorry's  method  of 
mediate,  4,  203. 


[204] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Periscope,  its  use  on  sub- 
marines, 7,  in. 

Perkin,  produced  the  first  ani- 
line color,  8,  312. 

Perraudin,  first  accounted  for 
the  presence  of  bowlders 
on  the  mountain-tops,  3,  145; 
his  idea  laughed  at  by  all 
except  Charpentier,  3,  146. 

Perrin,  J.,  his  theories  of  radio- 
activity, 6,  i 06. 


importance  of  his  work  as  an 

Egyptologist,  1,  28. 
Pett,    Phineas,   ships   produced 

by,  7,  60. 
Philippe,  Louis,  King  of  France, 

received  first  message  through 

cable      under      the      English 

Channel  in  1845,  8,  32. 
Philopater,     Ptolemy,     descrip- 
tion of  ship  said  to  be  used 

by,  7,  57. 
Philosopher- Scientists  and  New 

Institutions      of       Learning, 

Chapter  IX,  2,  191. 
Philosophers      in      Italy,      The 

Early  Greek,  Chapter  VI,   1, 

112. 

Philosopher's  stone,  2,  124,  131. 

Phlogiston  Theory  in  Chemistry, 
The,  Chapter  I,  4,  3. 

Phlogiston  theory,  the,  in 
chemistry,  4,  3-10;  influence 
of  Boyle's  teaching  of,  4,  5; 
Stahl's  theory  of,  4,  6;  pecul- 
iarities of,  4,  7;  many  com- 
plications and  final  overthrow 
of,  4,  9. 

Phonautograph,  invented  by 
Mr.  Leo  Scott,  8,  93. 

Phonograph,  the,  invented  by 
Thomas  A.  Edison,  8,  93; 
description  of,  8,  97. 

Photography,  the  importance  of 
the  discovery  of,  in  spectro- 
scopy,  4,  70;  discovered  by 
Daguerre,  8,  202;  the  part 
played  by  it  in  the  discovery 
of  radio-activity  by  Bec- 
querel, 8,  220;  Daguerre 
discovered  a  practical  method 

[205] 


of  developing  photographic 
plates,  8,  220;  Scheele's  ex- 
periments, 8,  220;  Rumford's 
arguments,  8,  221;  first  prac- 
tical application  by  Thomas 
Wedgewood,  8,  221;  Sir 
Humphry  Davy's  experi- 
ments with  the  camera  ob- 
scura,  8,  221;  Nic6phore  de 
Niepce  discovered  a  method 
of  making  permanent  photo- 
graphs, 8,  222;  the  daguer- 
reotype, 8,  224;  the  first  por- 
traits ever  taken,  8,  226; 
Talbot's  "calotype"  process, 
8,  227;  discovery  of  the 
' '  gallo-nitrate ' '  process  by 
J.  B.  Reade,  8,  228;  Goddard 
made  the  discovery  that  bro- 
mine vapor  rendered  plates 
more  sensitive,  8,  228;  pro- 
cess of  toning  or  gilding  in- 
vented by  Fizeau,  8,  228; 
glass  negatives,  invented  by 
Niepce  St.  Victor,  and  im- 
proved by  Blanquart  and 
Le  Gray,  8,  229;  the  Archer 
collodion  plate,  8,  230;  "col- 
lodion-emulsion" process  in- 
vented by  Bolton  and  Sayce, 
8,  231;  discovery  of  Cary 
Lea  and  W.  Cooper,  8,  232; 
Wortley's  discovery,  8,  232; 
Researches  with  chloride  and 
bromide  of  silver,  by  M.  J.  S. 
Stas,  8,  232;  the  discovery 
of  Mockhoven,  8,  233;  the 
flexible  film,  8,  233 ;  photo- 
graphing in  natural  colors,  8, 
234;  Becquerel  the  first  to 
take  up  specifically  the  matter 
of  color-photography,  8,  235; 
standing  light  waves,  8,  236; 
Zenker's  theory,  8,  236;  Lip- 
mann's  direct  method  of  color- 
photography,  8,  237;  Clerk- 
Maxwell's  experiments,  8, 
237;  invention  of  the  slide- 
carrier  by  F.  E.  Ives,  8,  238; 
single-lens  camera  invented 
by  Sanger-Shepard,  8,  238; 
three-lens  camera  devised  by 
CheVon,  8,  240;  method  of 
Ducos  du  Hauron,  8,  241; 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


lined  by  Doctor  Mees,  8,  247  ; 
od,  of  Chapman  Jones,  8, 


first  screen-plate  process  put 
forward  by  Dr.  Robert  Joly, 
8,  242  ;  practical  screen-plate 
produced  by  J.  W.  Mc- 
Donough,  8,  242  ;  the  inven- 
tion of  Robert  Krayne,  8,242; 
color-screen  invented  by 
Powrie,  8,  243;  "Random 
grain"  plates  invented  by 
Messrs.  Lumiere,  8,  243;  the 
Lumiere  "autochrome"  plate, 
8,  243;  the  "omnicolor" 
plate,  8,  244;  the  method  of 
Szczepanik,  8,  245;  Lip- 
mann's  method  of  employing 
the  minute  spectra  of  prisms, 
8,  246;  improved  method  of 
Ch6ron,  8,  248;  the  future  of 
color-photography  as  out- 

b 

meth 

247;  Chrono-photography  — 
moving  pictures,  8,  248; 
phenakistoscope  invented  by 
Plateau,  8,  249;  zoetrope  or 
"wheel  of  life,"  8,  249;  Ray- 
naud's  praxinoscope,  8,  249; 
Muybridge,  Marey,  and  An- 
schiitz  took  first  steps  in  the 
development  of  chrono-pho- 
tography,  8,  250;  the  zoo- 
praxiscope  devised  by  Muy- 
bridge, 8,  250;  photographic 
gun  invented  by  Jansen,  8, 
250;  the  photoscope,  8,  250; 
Edison's  kinetoscope,  8,  251; 
method  of  making  moving  pic- 
tures, 8,  251;  the  slot  ma- 
chine or  mutoscope,  8,  254;  the 
uses  of  photography,  8,  255; 
the  kinematograph,  8,  256; 
mystery  of  the  background  of 
the  eye  solved  by  stereopho- 
tography,  8,  256;  micropho- 
tography  indispensable  to  the 
pathologist,  8,  256;  the  use  of 
the  camera  in  zoology  and  bot- 
any, 8,  256;  practical  use  of 
the  kinematograph  by  the  zo- 
ologist, 8,  256;  the  camera  re- 
placing the  plane-table,  8,  257. 

Photogravure,  process  of  ,  8,  217. 

Phrenology,  studies  in,  by  Gall, 
4,  247. 


Physical  diagnosis,  Corvisart 
lays  the  foundation  of,  4, 
199. 

Physical  Laboratories  and  Phys- 
ical Problems,  Some,  Chapter 
IV,  6,  73- 

Physical  Science,  The  Succes- 
sors of  Galileo  in,  Chapter  X, 
2,  204. 

Physicians,  in  the  early  Roman 
days,  1,  273;  special  laws 
enacted  to  protect,  1,  275; 
exempted  from  taxes  and 
military  service,  1.  276. 

Physics,  Galileo  and  the  New, 
Chapter  V,  2,  93. 

Physiology,  Anatomy  and,  in 
the  Eighteenth  Century, 
Chapter  IV,  4,  73- 

Physiology,  Anatomy  and,  in 
the  Nineteenth  Century, 
Chapter  V,  4,  102—139. 

Piazzi,  an  Italian  astronomer 
who  discovered  the  planet 
Ceres,  3,  40. 

Picard,  James,  patents  crank 
and  connecting-rod  for  use  on 
the  steam-engine,  6,  100. 

Picnotti,  his  invention  of  the 
ring  armature,  6,  179. 

Pigments,  of  antiquity,  8,  265; 
black  pigments,  8,  267;  white 
pigments,  8,  274;  some 
"chrome"  pigments,  8,  281; 
other  yellow  mineral  pig- 
ments, 8,  285;  some  brilliant 
but  poisonous  pigments,  8, 
288;  green  mineral  pigments, 
8,  292;  blue  pigments  from 
the  mineral  world,  8,  295;  the 
brown  mineral  pigments,  8, 
302;  pigments  from  vege- 
table and  animal  sources,  8, 

3°3- 

Pinel,  Dr.  Philippe,  leader  in 
reforms  for  the  care  of  in- 
sane, 4,  245;  liberation  of  the 
inmates  at  the  Bicetre  and 
the  Salpetriere,  4,  246. 

Piorry's  method  of  mediate 
percussion,  4,  203. 

Piston  engine  as  means  of  trans- 
mission of  power,  idea  origi- 
nated with  Papin,  6,  88. 


[206] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Pitch-blende,  a  radio-active  sub- 
stance, 5,  98. 

Pithecanthropus  erectus,  the  fos- 
sil of  the  ape-man  found  by 
Dr.  Dubois  in  the  island  of 
Java,  3,  113. 

Pitt,  William,  his  interest  in 
Fulton's  submarine  boats,  7, 
100. 

Pizarro,  found  cotton  growing 
indigenously  in  Mexico  and 
Peru,  9,  7. 

Plagues,  their  influence  on  me- 
diaeval medical  science,  2,  33, 
41. 

Planch6,  Gaston,  his  invention 
of  the  electric  storage  battery, 
3,  246. 

Planet,  the,  constructed  by 
Stephenson,  7,  135. 

Plateau,  M.,  invented  a  moving- 
picture  machine  called  the 
phenakistoscope,  8,  249. 

Plato,  Aristotle,  and  Theo- 
phrastus,  Chaper  VIII,  1, 
178. 

Plato,  his  visit  to  Egypt  to 
study  the  mysteries  of  its 
fabled  learning,  1,  56,  84;  the 
greatest  thinker  and  writer  of 
his  time,  1,  180;  a  mystical 
dreamer  and  sociologist,  1, 
182;  considered  manual  toil- 
degrading,  6,  26. 

Platt,  Messrs.  Fielding  and, 
their  rotary  engine,  6,  122. 

Plinius  Secundus,  the  most  fa- 
mous Latin  writer  of  antiq- 
uity, 1,  265;  soldier  and  in- 
vestigator, 1,  266. 

Pliny,  his  unbounded  respect  for 
Oriental  learning,  1,  56. 

Plutarch,  his  narrative  of  the 
experiments  of  Archimedes, 
6,  34- 

Plutonists,  a  name  given  to  the 
followers  of  Hutton,  3,  131. 

Poker,  lever  of  the  first  class,  6, 

3°- 

Pole,  the  quest  of  the,  7,  47; 
Henry  Hudson's  farthest 
north  record,  7,  48;  discovery 
of,  7,  49;  controversy  over 
the  discovery  of  the  pole,  7, 


49;  method  of  determining 
arrival  at  the  pole,  7,  50. 

Polo,  Marco,  mistakenly  ac- 
credited with  bringing  the 
compass  from  the  East,  7,  46. 

Polonium,  discovery  of  the 
radio-active  properties  of,  6, 
101. 

Ponderable  Matter,  The  Ether 
and,  Chapter  IX,  3,  283. 

Popoff,  Prof.  A.,  apparatus  used 
by,  for  sending  wireless  mes- 
sages, 8,  54. 

Porta,  Giovanni  Battista  della, 
early  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury published  idea  of  utiliz- 
ing steam  for  raising  water, 
6,83. 

Posidonius,  reference  to  his 
measurement  of  the  size  of 
the  world,  7,  5. 

Post-Socratic  Science  at  Athens 
— Plato,  Aristotle,  and  Theo- 
phrastus,  Chapter  VIII,  1, 
178. 

Potter,  Humphrey,  cock  boy, 
invention  of  beam  connection 
for  operating  engine  valves 
attributed  to,  6,  91;  reasons 
for  doubt,  6,  92. 

Pottery  and  Pottery  Making. 
See  Products  of  Clay  and 
Fire. 

Pouchet,  M.  F.  A.,  belief  in 
spontaneous  generation,  4, 
1 80. 

Power,  transmission  of,  by 
means  of  gears,  belts,  chains, 
6,  35-36. 

Powrie,  John  W.,  color-screen 
method  adopted  by,  8,  243. 

Predynastic  period  of  Egyptian 
history,  the,  1,  28. 

Preece,  Sir  William  H.,  experi- 
ments of,  8,  50. 

Prehistoric  man,  the,  1,  29. 

Prehistoric  Science,  Chapter  I, 

1,  3- 

Prehistoric  science,  not  a  con- 
tradiction of  terms,  1,  3;  the 
distinctive  prehistoric  and  his- 
toric epochs,  1,  26,  27. 

Prestwich,  his  conclusions  in 
regard  to  the  flint  instruments 


[207] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


in   the   collection    of    M.    de 
Perthes,  3.  101. 

Priestley,  Joseph,  important 
discoveries  of,  4,  18;  flight 
from  French  mob,  4,  19; 
oxygen  his  greatest  discov- 
ery, 4,  20;  refusal  to  reject 
the  phlogiston  theory,  4,  36; 
experiments  in  the  mysteries 
of  respiration,  4,  93;  his 
experiments  with  balloons, 

7,  230. 

Primitive  books,  8,  99;  five 
primitive  types,  8,  99;  the 
papyrus  roll  of  the  Egyptian, 

8,  100;    the  tablet  of  baked 
clay,  8,  103 ;  prism  or  cylinder 
of   clay   used   by   the    Baby- 
lonians and  Assyrians,  8,  105; 
the    palm-leaf   books    of   the 
Hindus,  8,  106;  folded  books, 
8,    108;    the  text  of  ancient 
books,  8,   112. 

Primitive  man,  our  knowledge  of, 
1,6;  he  observed  that  the  sun 
gives  heat  and  light  and  the 
moon  and  stars  light  only,  1, 
7 ;  noted  the  changing  phases 
of  the  seasons,  ibid.;  noted 
that  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars 
move  across  the  heavens,  1,  8; 
had  some  idea  of  the  law  of 
universal  terrestrial  gravita- 
tion, 1,  9;  knew  the  facts 
concerning  the  rigidity  of 
solids  and  the  mobility  of 
liquids,  1,  10;  knew  that 
friction  produced  heat  and  fire, 
1,  n;  practised  instinctive 
therapeutics,  1,  13;  idea  of 
death,  1,  15;  had  vague  con- 
ceptions of  an  endless  life,  1, 
18;  ideas  of  psychology, 
mathematics,  and  political 
economy,  1,  19;  knew  what 
was  essential  to  communal 
harmony,  1,  21;  his  basal 
principles  are  the  foundations 
of  modern  science,  1,  22;  had 
"innate"  ideas  of  a  future 
life,  1,  23;  owes  a  debt  of 
gratitude  to  his  barbaric 
predecessor,  1,  24. 

Prince  Rupert,  erroneously  ac- 


credited with  invention  of 
the  mezzotint,  8,  196. 

Printing  and  Making  of  Modern 
Books,  The,  Chapter  VII,  8, 
119-158. 

Printing,  Chinese  credited  with 
the  discovery  of  the  art  of, 
8,  119;  the  first  book  printed 
from  movable  types,  8,  120; 
the  father  of  printing,  8,  120; 
the  first  printing-press  ever  in- 
vented, 8,  120;  improvement 
made  by  William  Blaew,  8, 
122;  press  produced  by  the 
Earl  of  Stanhope,  8,  122;  press 
invented  by  Isaac  Adams,  8, 
122;  the  cylinder  press  in- 
vented by  William  Nicholson, 
8,  123;  practical  solution  of 
"cylinder  press"  credited  to 
Friedrich  Koenig,  8,  123; 
Napier's  cylinder  press 
equipped  with  grippers  or 
"fingers,"  8,  124;  the  Ameri- 
can printing-press  without 
a  rival,  8,  124;  the  "stop 
cylinder"  invented  by  Dutar- 
tre,  8,  125;  the  advent  of 
the  type-revolving  machine, 
8,  127;  the  press  invented  by 
Richard  M.  Hoe,  8,  127;  in- 
genious device  patented  by 
Stephen  D.  Tucker,  8,  130; 
a  modern  newspaper  press,  8, 
131;  a  perfected  magazine 
press,  8,  135;  the  "Rotary 
Art"  press  for  color  printing, 
8,  137;  other  aids  to  the 
printer,  8,  139;  the  Mergen- 
thaler  linotype,  8,  142;  Lan- 
ston  monotype  machine, 
8,  145;  the  graphotype  in- 
vented by  J.  H.  Goodson,  8, 
149 ;  type-setting  machines, 
8,  150;  the  Dow  type-setting 
machine,  8,  151;  the  develop- 
ment of  book-binding,  8, 
153. 

Printing-press  (see  also  Print- 
ing), its  part  in  the  develop- 
ment of  medical  learning,  2, 

'  iems,  Some  Unsolved  Scien 
tific,  Chapter  VIII,  6,  203. 


Probie 


[208] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Problems,  some  unsolved  scien- 
tific, 5,  203-229;  solar  and 
telluric,  6,  205-213;  physical, 
6,  213-220;  life,  6,  220-229; 
of  anthropology,  6,  228. 

Problems,  Medical,  Some  Medi- 
cal Laboratories  and,  Chap- 
ter VII,  5,  178. 

Problems,  Physical,  Some  Phys- 
ical Laboratories  and,  Chap- 
ter IV,  5,  73- 

Products  of  Clay  and  Fire, 
Chaptet  X,  9,  227-271. 

Products  of  Clay  and  Fire, 
Chapter  X,  9,  227;  pottery- 
making  by  primitive  man,  9, 
227;  the  manufacture  of 
pottery,  9,  227;  the  raw 
materials,  9,  232;  mixing  the 
materials,  9,  238;  the  glaze 
and  its  preparation,  9,  243; 
methods  of  making  pottery 
by  hand,  9,  246;  machines 
that  make  pottery,  9,  255; 
from  clay  to  china,  9,  260; 
decorating  the  ware,  9,  271. 

Progress  in  Electricity  from 
Gilbert  and  Von  Guericke  to 
Franklin,  Chapter  XIV,  2, 
259. 

Progress  of  Modern  Astronomy, 
The,  Chapter  II,  3,  19. 

Progress,  the  only  real  progress 
due  to  the  development  of 
mechanical  inventions,  6,  12- 

J7- 

Property,  the  foundation-stone 
of  civilization,  6,  25. 

Prospect,  Retrospect  and,  Chap- 
ter IX,  5,  230. 

Protoplasm,  studies  in,  by  De 
Bary  and  Schultze,  4,  125. 

Proust,  Louis  Joseph,  disputes 
Dalton's  atomic  theory,  4,  41. 

Prout,  Dr.  William,  studies  of 
atomic  weights,  4,  66;  his 
alleged  law  revived  by  Du- 
mas, 4,  67;  detected  hydro- 
chloric acid  in  gastric  juice,  4, 
129. 

Pseudo-Sciences,  Two — Alche- 
my and  Astrology,  Chapter 
VI,  2,  124. 

Psychology,   The   New   Science 


of  Experimental,  Chapter  IX, 
4,  245. 

Ptolemy,  erected  a  museum  and 
collected  a  library  which  made 
Alexandria  the  culture-centre 
of  the  world,  1,  190;  the  last 
great  astronomer  of  antiquity, 
1,267;  discovered  the  moon's 
evection,  1,  268;  his  writings 
became  the  sole  astronomical 
text-book  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
1,  269;  his  theory  of  epicycles 
1,  270;  the  errors  in  the 
colored  maps  attributed  to 
him  may  have  influenced 
Columbus  on  his  voyages  of 
discovery  1,  271. 

Pulley,  principle  of,  6,  33 ;  per- 
fected by  Archimedes,  6,  34. 

Pump,  electric,  use  in  mining,  6, 
263. 

Pumps  and  pumping  (see  also 
Suction,  Ctesibius) ,  della  Porta 
states  idea  of  utilizing  steam 
for  raising  water;  idea  put 
into  effect  by  Caus,  6,  83; 
expansive  force  of  steam  first 
applied  by  Marquis  of  Worces- 
ter, 6,  84;  Savery's  steam 
pump,  6,  85;  Newcomen's 
pumping  engines,  6,  89. 

Purkinje  discovers  that  the  pan- 
creas shares  in  digestion,  4, 
129. 

Pyramids,  the  building  of,  1, 
32;  oriented  in  strict  accord- 
ance with  some  astronomical 
principle,  1,  33. 

Pyramids  of  Egypt,  building  of, 
described  by  Diodorus  Sicu- 
lus,  6,  37. 

Pythagoras,  a  youthful  athlete, 
1,  112;  one  of  the  fathers  of 
Grecian  thought,  1,  114;  the 
founder  of  an  independent 
school  of  philosophy,  1,  116; 
advocates  the  theory  of  the 
sphericity  of  the  eartn,  1.  1 18, 
119;  the  discoverer  of  the 
identity  of  Hesperus  and  Luci- 
fer, 1,  120;  carried  the  science 
of  geometry  to  perfection, 
ibid.;  no  written  line  of  his 
has  come  to  us,  1,  121;  a 


[209] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


summary  of  his  doctrines  as      Ramony  Cajal,  Dr.  S.,  demon 
quoted  by  Diogenes,  1,   122;          stration  of  independent  nerve 
an    agnostic    as    regards    the 
current  Greek  religion,  1,  127. 


QUADRANT,  the  instrument  de- 
vised by  Hadley  for  measur- 
ing the  altitude  of  astronom- 
ical bodies,  7,  20. 


filaments,  4,  283;  importance 
of  discovery,  4,  285. 
Ramsay,  Sir  William,  and  new 
gases,  6,  82-92;  laboratory 
and  equipment  of,  5,  83; 
characterizes  the  importance 
of  industrial  chemistry ,  6,  299. 


Question  as  to  living  forms  on      Rankine,    William    John    Mac- 

quorn,  had  a  part  in  perfect- 
ing  theory  of   steam  engine, 


other  worlds,  5,  220. 
Quinine,  its  introduction,  2,  185. 
Quinquet,  an  oil  lamp  invented          b,  115. 

by  him,  6,  205.  Raphael,  took  active  interest  in 

copper  engraving,  8,  194. 

RABIES,  or  hydrophobia,  slow  in      Rawlinson,  Canon,  his  estimate 

of    Babylonian   influence,    1, 
82;    contrasted  with  that  of 
Diodorus,   1,  83. 
Rawlinson,  Sir  Henry,  "father 
of  Assyriology,"  4,  229;  6,  9; 


development,  6,  182;  its  treat- 
ment  by   inoculation   at  the 
Pasteur  Institute,  5,  183. 
Rackenzaun,  Anthony,  his  work 
on    storage-battery    systems, 


7,  i 

Radio- 


o-active  bodies,  nature  of 


helped  to  decipher  the  Assy- 
rian hieroglyphics,  8,  228. 


emanations  from,  6,  102;  dif-      Rayleigh,    Lord    of    the    Royal 


ferent  kinds  of  rays  produced 
by,  6,  103;  source  of  energy 
of,  6,  1  06;  suggestion  that 
this  energy  may  some  day  be 
utilized  in  the  propulsion  of 
mechanisms,  6,  318. 
Radio-activity,"  6,  97- 


Institution,  experiments  with 
gases,  6,  85;  his  laboratory 
experiments  with  the  fixa- 
tion of  nitrogen,  6,  306. 
Raynaud,  invented  a  moving- 
picture  machine  called  the 
praxinoscope,  8,  249. 


rty, 

termed  by  Madame  Curie,  6,  Reade,  Rev.  J.  B.,  discoverer  of 
101;  source  of  energy  of,  6,  a  " gallo-nitrate  process,"  8, 
1 06;  and  the  structure  of  the 

107; 

Becquerel,  8,  220. 
Radiolarians,   the  discovery  of 


atom,  5,^107;   discovered  by      Re,  Filipo,  his  theories  of  radio- 
activity,  6,   1 06. 
R6aumur,    Ren6,    the   stomach 


numerous    species    by    Ernst 
Haeckel,  5,  154;   part  played 


as  a  grinding  or  triturating 
organ,  settled  by,  4,  88;  his 
experiments  with  gastric  juice, 
4,89. 

Curie  and  his  wife,    6,    100;      Red   corpuscles  of  the  human 
power  of,  in  penetrating  sub- 
stances, 5,  101,  102;    an  ele- 


in  evolution,  5,   155. 
Radium,   discovered  by   Pierre 


blood,    snape   ol,    settled    by 
Joseph    Jackson     Lister,     4, 

mentary  substance,    5,    104;          114;   functions  of,  4,  135. 

Ramsay's  experiments  with,      Refrigerator   machines,    use   of 

ibid.;    presence  of  helium  in, 

6,  105;    methods  devised  for 


testing  heat  given  off  by,  5, 
no;  its  heat-giving  qualities, 
5,  2ii  ;  amount  of  energy 
stored  in,  6,  318. 


liquefied  gases  in,  5,  61-63. 

Rembrandt,  the  famous  painter 

also  a  master  etcher,  8,  196. 


Renard  and  Krebs,  constructed 
La  France,  a  motor-driven 
balloon,  7,  264. 


Ramillies,  attacks  on,  by  sub-      Renucci,  F.,  and  the  itch  mite, 


marines,  7,  102. 


[2IO] 


4,  206. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Republic,   rescue  of   passengers      Rev,  Jean,  experiments  with  air, 
and  crew  due  to  submarine 
signaling  apparatus,  7,  88. 

Respiration,  the  function  of,  4, 
92;  experiments  in  the  mys- 
teries of,  4,  93,  94;  Erasmus 
Darwin  and  vegetable,  4,  94. 

Restoration  of  Assyrian   sculp- 


4,6. 
Rhazes,   Arabian  physician,  2, 

24. 
Ricard,  Bishop,  with  Dr.  Ather- 

stone  made  the  first  tests  of 

South  African  diamonds,    9, 


ture,  4,   293. 

Retgers,  Dutch  mineralogist  dis- 
covers a  colorless  compound  of 
silver  and  thalium  used  in  test- 
ing the  specific  gravity  of  gems, 
9,  3°3- 

Retrospect  and  Prospect,  Chap- 
ter IX,  6,  230. 

Retrospect  and  prospect,  6,  230 
—242;  scientific  attitude  of 
mind,  6,  230-232;  natural 
versus  supernatural,  6,  233, 
234;  inductive  versus  deduc- 
tive reasoning,  5,  235-238; 
logical  induction  versus  hasty 
generalization,  6,  239-242. 

Retrospective  Glance  at  Clas- 
sical Science,  A,  Chapter  XI, 
1,  285. 

Retrospective  glance,  the  span 
from  Thales  to  Galen  com- 
passed about  eight  hundred 
years,  1,  286 ;  the  true  hypoth- 
esis concerning  the  sun  and 
the  planetary  system,  1,  287; 
the  beginnings  of  great  things 
in  the  sciences,  1,  288;  the 
homes  of  the  great  scientists 
were  scattered  over  a  wide 
territory,  1,  289;  Plato  the 
only  great  scientist  who  was 
born  in  Greece,  ibid.;  racial 
mingling,  1,  290;  early  de- 
velopment of  thought  and 
Oriental  science,  1,  291;  the 
entire  school  of  Alexandrians 
free  from  superstition,  1,  292; 
the  attitude  of  the  Roman 
mind  towards  science,  ibid.; 
beliefs  based  upon  pseudo- 
scientific  inductions,  1,  294; 
miracle  workers,  1,295;  "  The 
Thundering  Legion,"  1,  296; 
Xiphilinus's  account  of  the 
battle  between  the  Romans 
and  the  hostile  Quadi,  1,  297. 


316. 

"Riddle  of  the  Sphinx,"  how 
read,  4,  287. 

Rittenhouse  and  Hopkins,  in- 
vented and  sent  up  a  balloon, 
7,  237. 

Roberts,  Richard,  improves  the 
self-acting  mule,  9,  35. 

Robinet  and  the  idea  of  the 
transmutation  of  species,  4, 
149. 

Rocket,  description  of  the, 
Stephenson's  famous  loco- 
motive, 7,  133. 

Rocks,  the  origin  of  stratified, 
3,  143;  the  "transition"  and 
"secondary"  systems,  3,  156; 
the  Silurian  and  Devonian 
systems,  3,  157;  the  Lauren- 
tian  system,  ibid.;  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Adirondack  and 
Storm  King  range  are  patri- 
archs of  the  kind,  3,  158;  dif- 
ferent in  character,  3,  159; 
the  backbone  of  the  future 
continent,  3,  161;  the  strata 
of  the  Paleozoic  period,  3, 
162;  the  Rocky  range,  3, 
163. 

Roderick  and  Joseph,  and 
Martin  de  Bohemia,  credited 
with  inventing  the  apparatus 
known  as  the  astrolabe,  7, 
19. 

Roentgen,  Professor  Wilhelm 
Conrad,  the  discoverer  of  the 
"X-ray,"  3,  248;  its  ex- 
traordinary results  on  the 
photographic  film,  ibid.;  the 
apparatus  for  producing  the 
rays,  3,  251;  the  composition 
of  the  rays  not  fully  deter- 
mined, 3,  252. 

Rolando's  method  of  cutting 
pieces  of  brain  tissue  for 
microscopical  examination,  4, 
277. 


[211] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


Rolls,  Charles  R.,  his  remarkable  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  at 
flight  across  the  English  Chan-  Paris,  2,  202;  at  Berlin,  ibid. 
nel,  7,  294.  Royal  Institute,  founded  1801, 

Roman  Period,  Science  of  the,  4,  46;  Humphry  Davy  as- 
Chapter  X,  1,  253. 

Roofs,  different  types  of,  9,  153. 

Rosel,  Prof.,  of  the  University 
of  Bern,  has  demonstrated  the 
presence  of  microscopic  dia- 
monds in  steel,  9,  329. 
the 


Rosellini  extended  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  phonetic  value  of 
inscriptions  on  the  Rosetta 
Stone,  1,  27. 

Rosetta  Stone,  its  hieroglyphics 
deciphered  by  Dr.  Thomas 
Young,  1,  27;  the,  4,  287; 
biography  of,  4,  288;  de- 
cipherment of,  4,  289,  290;  in 
British  Museum,  5,  8. 

Rosicrucians,  2,   136. 

Ross,  Sir  James,  located  the 
northern  magnetic  pole,  7, 13. 

Ross,  Louis,  his  automobile 
record  at  Ormonde,  7,  165. 

Rotary  engine,  principle  of,  6, 
119;  James  Watt's  invention 
of,  6,  119;  Joshua  Rout- 
ledge's,  6.  120;  of  Rev. 
Patrick  Bell,  6,  121;  of  Lord 
Armstrong,  6,  120;  of  Messrs. 
Fielding  and  Platt,  6,  122;  of 
Mr.  Hoffman  of  Buffalo,  6, 
123;  estimated  speed  of  loco- 
motive using  Hoffman  engine, 
6,  123;  see  also  "Steam- 
Engine." 

Routledge,  Joshua,  design  of  his 
rotary  engine  described,  6, 
120. 

Rotary  motion,  in  steam-engine, 
first  attempts  at,  by  Watt,  6, 
99-100;  crank  and  connect- 
ing rod  patented  by  Picard,  6, 
100;  Watt  invents  sun-and- 
planet  gearing,  6,  100;  pos- 
sibilities of,  not  realized  at 
first,  6,  1 00-110. 

Rowboat,  the  oar  a  modified 
form  of  lever,  6,  58;  ancient 
ships  chiefly  propelled  by 
oars,  7,  57. 

Roux,  Dr.,  his  paper  on  anti- 
toxine,  4,  242. 


[212] 


sumed  chair  of  chemical  phil- 
osophy of,  4,  46. 

Royal  Institution  and  the  Low- 
Temperature  Researches,  The, 
Chapter  III,  6,  29. 

Royal  Institution  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, foundation  and  founder, 

6,  29,  30;  methods  and  results 
at,  6,  33-38- 

Royal  Society  of  London  for 
Improving  Natural  Knowl- 
edge, The,  Chapter  II,  6,  14. 

Royal  Society  of  London,  the,  its 
origin,  2,  201;  6,  14-28; 
visitors  to,  5,  15;  the  lecture- 
room  of,  6,  17;  comparison 
between,  and  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy of  Science  of  Berlin,  5, 
18;  library  and  reading- 
rooms  of,  6,  19;  busts  of  dis- 
tinguished members  of,  6,  20; 
priceless  relics  in,  6,  21,  22. 

Royal    Swedish    Academy,    2, 

202. 

Rozier,  Pilatre  de,  the  first  man 
to  make  an  ascent  in  a  balloon, 

7,  235;    the  first   victim  of 
ballooning,  7,  241. 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul,  was  in- 
terested in  the  reproduction  of 
paintings  through  copper  en- 
graving, 8,  194- 

Ruby  and  its  allies,  the,  9,  319. 

Riicker,  Arthur  William,  per- 
manent secretary,  Royal  So- 
ciety of  London,  5,  17. 

Ruhmkorff ,  the  electrical  coil  of, 
6,  199. 

Rumford,  Count,  and  the  vibra- 
tory theory  of  heat,  3,  208; 
his  experiments  to  determine 
the  nature  of  heat,  3,  209, 
determines  that  heat  is  a 
form  of  motion,  3,  215, 
showed  that  labor  may  be 
transformed  into  heat,  3,  255; 
founder  of  the  Royal  In- 
stitution of  Great  Britain,  6, 
30;  challenged  the  doctrine 
of  imponderable  fluids  as  ap- 


GENERAL  INDEX 


plied  to  light  and  heat,  6,  154; 
unsuccessful  in  his  attempts 
to  show  that  changes  in  chem- 
icals are  due  to  the  action  of 
heat  rather  than  of  light,  8, 
221. 

Rumsey,  James,  practical  test 
of  boat  built  by,  7,  67. 

Rush,  Dr.  Benjamin,  leader  in 
reforms  for  care  of  insane,  4, 

245- 

Rust,  early  printer  whose  press 
was  a  modification  of  the 
Gutenberg  press,  8,  122. 

Rutherford,  Professor,  explains 
the  presence  of  helium  in 
radium,  6,  105;  and  the  in- 
stability of  the  atom,  5,  no. 

SABBATICAL  DAYS,  the  four  days 
in  the  month  set  apart  for 
rest  from  work  by  the  Assyr- 
ians, 1,  65;  the  foundation  of 
the  Hebrew  Sabbath,  ibid. 

Sailing  by  dead  reckoning,  7, 
14;  explanation  of,  7,  15. 

Sails,  used  in  antiquity  by  the 
Phoenicians,  6,  62;  used  by 
the  Egyptians,  7,  56;  modern 
sailing  ships,  7,  60. 

Saint-Hilaire,  Etienne  Geof- 
froy,  the  doctrine  of  trans- 
mutation championed  by,  4, 
161. 

Saint,  Thomas,  inventor  of  an 
early  type  of  sewing-machine, 
9,  89. 

St.  Victor,  Niepce,  invented  the 
glass  negative  from  which 
photographic  prints  could  be 
made,  8,  229. 

Salerno,  medical  school  at,  2,  29. 

Saliva,  its  share  in  preparing 
food  for  absorption,  4,  130. 

Salva,  Don  Francisco,  tele- 
graph invented  by,  8,  8. 

Sanborn,  Edward  H.,  his  report 
on  motive  power  appliances 
quoted,  6,  73;  article  on 
Motive  Power  Appliances,  6, 
129. 

Sanctorius  discovers  "insensible 
perspiration,"  2,  187. 

Sandeman,  quoted  as  to  ancient 


versus  modern  methods  of 
pottery-making,  9,  249. 

Sanger- Shepherd,  inventor  of  a 
single-lens  camera,  8,  238; 
his  work  in  perfecting  color- 
photography  8,  239. 

Sans-pareil,  description  of  the 
famous  locomotive  bearing 
this  name,  7,  132. 

Santos- Dumont,  the  balloons  of, 

7,  266. 

"Sarcode,"  the  fluid  contents  of 
cells,  4,  124. 

Sargon,  Mesopotamian  con- 
queror, his  achievements  re- 
corded on  a  prism  now  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum, 

8,  105. 

Saturn,  the  discovery  of  the 
inner  rings  of,  by  Bond  and 
Dawes,  3,  44;  Maxwell's  paper 
"On  the  Stability  of  Saturn's 
Rings,"  3,  45-48. 

Savannah,  the  first  steamship  to 
cross  the  ocean,  7,  73;  de- 
scription of  the,  7,  73. 

Savary,  an  astronomer  of  Paris, 
3,  58. 

Savery,  Thomas,  patented  a 
steam  engine  to  be  applied  to 
the  raising  of  water,  6?  85. 

Saw,  modification  of  inclined 
plane,  principle  of,  6,  55. 

Saxton,  his  name  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  early  efforts 
at  utilization  of  magneto- 


electric  power,  6,  178. 
ayce,       Professor       Archibald 
Henry,  on  Chaldean  supersti- 


tions, 1,  70. 

Sayce,  one  of  the  inventors  of 
the  collodion-emulsion  proc- 
ess, 8,  231. 

Scandium  discovered,  4,  68. 

Scheele,  Karl  Wilhelm,  oxygen 
and  chlorine  discovered  by, 
4,  23;  his  discovery  of  chlo- 
rine, 4,  25;  believed  in  the 
phlogiston  theory,  4,  27;  his 
many  discoveries,  4,  27,  28; 
experiments  in  the  mysteries 
of  respiration,  4,  93;  dis- 
covered the  fact  that  certain 
chemicals  quickly  change 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


color  when  exposed  to  light, 
8,  220. 

Schiaparelli  discovered  that 
meteor  swarms  move  in  the 
orbit  of  a  previously  observed 
comet,  3,  55. 

Schilling,  Baron,  experiments 
with  the  telegraph,  8,  14- 

Schleiden,  Dr.  M.  J.,  and  the 
ceil  theory,  4,  118. 

Schlessinger,  W.  M.f  electric 
traction  engine  invented  by, 
6, 257. 

Schlick,  Dr.  Otto,  records  of  the 
steadying  effect  of  his  gyro- 
scope, 6,  128;  his  successful 
experiment  with  the  gyro- 
scope, 7,  219. 

Schmerling,  Dr.,  fossil  remains 
found  by  him  in  a  cave  in 
Westphalia  rejected  by  Cuvier, 
3, 103. 

Schmidt  discovers  the  radio- 
active properties  of  thorium, 
6,  100. 

Schoenlein,  J.  L.,  discovery  of 
the  cause  of  favus,  4,  208. 

Schools  of  physiological  chemis- 
try under  guidance  of  Liebig 
and  Wohler  in  Germany  and 
Dumas  in  France,  4,  128. 

Schultze,  Max,  studies  in  proto- 

Elasm,  4,  125. 
uman,   Frank,   "wire-glass" 
patented  by,  9,  294. 

Schwann,  Dr.  Theodore,  re- 
searches in  animal  cells,  4, 
118;  famous  cell  theory,  4, 
119-122;  discovered  pepsin  in 
gastric  juice,  4,  129;  studies  in 
micro-organism,  4,  218;  stud- 
ies of  the  nerve  tracts,  4,  258. 

Schwartz,  the  all-aluminum  bal- 
loon constructed  by,  7,  264. 

Schweigger,  telegraph  of,  8,  13. 

Science,  Prehistoric,  Chapter  I, 
1,3- 

Science,  Egyptian,  Chapter  II, 
If  25. 

Science  of  Babylonia  and  As- 
syria, Chapter  III,  1,  56. 

Science,  The  Beginnings  of 
Greek,  Chapter  V,  1,  103. 

Science,    Greek,    in    the    Early 


Attic    Period,    Chapter   VII, 

1,  139. 

Science,  Post-Socratic,  at  Athens, 
Chapter  VIII,  1,  178. 

Science,  Greek,  of  the  Alexan- 
drian or  Hellenistic  Period, 
Chapter  IX,  1,  189. 

Science  of  the  Roman  Period, 
Chapter  X,  1,  253. 

Science,  A  Retrospective  Glance 
at  Classical,  Chapter  XI,  1, 
285. 

Science  in  the  Dark  Age,  Chap- 
ter I,  2,  3. 

Science,  Mediaeval,  Among  the 
Arabians,  Chapter  II,  2,  13. 

Science,  Mediaeval,[in  the  West, 
Chapter  III,  2,  31. 

Science,  The  Successors  of  Gali- 
leo in  Physical,  Chapter  X,  2, 
204. 

Science  of  Paleontology,  The 
New,  Chapter  III,  3,  74. 

Science  of  Meteorology,  The 
New,  Chapter  V,  3,  168. 

Science  of  Experimental  Psy- 
chology, The  New,  Chapter 
IX,  4/245. 

Science  of  Oriental  Archaeology, 
The  New,  Chapter  X,  4,  287. 

Science,  its  effect  upon  industrial 
problems  of  to-day  and  to- 
morrow, 6,  316. 

Sciences,  Two  Pseudo — Alchemy 
and  Astrology,  Chapter  VI, 

2,  124. 

Scientific  attitude  of  mind,  the, 

5,  230. 
Scientific  Problems,  Some  Un» 

solved,  Chapter  VIII,  6.  203. 
Scientists,  Philosopher,  and  New 

Institutions       of       Learning, 

Chapter  IX,  2,  191. 
Scissors,  lever  of  the  first  class, 

6,30. 
Scott,  his  suggestion  to  change 

the  shape  of  the  envelope  of 

the  balloon,  7,  248. 
Scott,  Leon,  produced  what  was 

known  as  a  "  phonautograph," 

8,  93- 

Screw,  an  inclined  plane,  6,  38. 
Scrope,  G.  Poulett,  claimed  that 

the  highest  mountains  were 


[2I4] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


masses  of  volcanic  matter,  3, 
132;  his  theories  of  rock 
formations,  3,  134. 

Sea-going  steamships,  7,  73. 

Seldon,  Charles  S.,  secured  a 
patent  designed  to  cover 
the  use  of  the  internal-com- 
bustion engine  as  a  motor  for 
road  vehicles,  7,  157. 

Semach,  O.  P.,  9,  179;  designed 
the  steel  work  for  the  Singer 
Tower,  9,  179. 

Seneca,  his  silence  regarding 
wind-mills  makes  their  pres- 
ence in  Rome  during  his 
time  problematical,  6,  68; 
records  that  special  fire  guards 
watched  the  Roman  house 
during  entertainments,  9,  150. 

Senefelder,  Alois,  invented 
lithography,  8,  196;  made 
various  experiments  in  at- 
tempting to  reproduce  pic- 
tures for  his  writings,  8,  198. 

Sennacherib,  Mesopotamian 
conqueror;  his  achievements 
recorded  on  prisms  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  8,  105. 

Serum-therapy,  4,  240;  the  es- 
tablishment of,  4,  244. 

Serum  treatment  for  serpent- 
poisoning,  5,  184. 

Servetus,  discoverer  of  pulmo- 
nary circulation,  2,  168. 

Servinus,  makes  practical  stud- 
ies of  effect  of  air  in  motion, 
his  sailing  car,  6,  68;  dis- 
covers law  of  pressure  in  all 
directions,  6,  75. 

Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece,  1, 
104. 

Severinus,  Marcus  Aurelius, 
Italian  surgeon,  2,  185. 

Sewage-disposal,  the  famous 
system  of  Berlin,  5,  199;  the 
system  of  the  Parisians,  5, 
200. 

Sewing-Machine,  The,  Chapter 
IV,  9,  87. 

Sewing-machine,  what  it  has 
done  for  civilization,  9,  87; 
the  machine  of  Charles  F. 
Weisenthal,  9,89;  the  sewing- 
machine  of  Thomas  Saint,  9, 


89;  the  first  practical  sewing- 
machine  invented  by  Bar- 
thelerny  Thimonnier,  9,  90; 
mobs  destroy  the  factory  con- 
taining Thimonnier  machines, 
9,  91;  the  American,  John  J. 
Greenough,  invents  a  sewing- 
machine  using  a  double- 
pointed  reedle,  9,91;  the  sew- 
ing-machine of  Walter  Hunt, 
9,  92;  the  invention  of  Elias 
Howe,  Jr.,  9,  93;  description 
of  his  machine,  9,  94;  im- 
provement on  Howe's  ma- 
chine by  John  Bachelder,  9, 
96;  improvement  in  mechan- 
ism of,  by  Allen  B.  Wilson,  9, 
96;  Isaac  M.  Singer  invents 
a  new  type  of  sewing-machine, 
9,  97;  effect  of  sewing-ma- 
chines upon  manufactures,  9, 
99;  machines  adapted  to 
various  purposes,  9,  101. 
Sextant,  invention  of  the,  2, 
257;  the  development  of,  7, 

Shackleton,  Lieutenant,  deter- 
mined the  location  of  the 
south  magnetic  pole,  7,  13. 

Ships  built  of  iron  and  steel,  7, 

Shoes,  manufacture  of.  See 
Clothing  the  Extremities,  9, 
103. 

Shooting-stars,  3,  55;  the  great 
shower  of  1833,  3,  171;  the 
same  in  kind  and  origin  as 
meteors,  3,  172. 

Shovel,  a  modified  form  of  the 
lever,  6,  57. 

Sibu,  whose  contorted  attitudes, 
according  to  Egyptian  myth- 
ology, caused  the  irregulari- 
ties of  the  earth's  surface,  1, 

Signatures,  doctrine  of,  2,  160. 

Siemens  (with  Halske)  invented 
a  lamp  having  a  tantalum 
filament,  6,  235;  his  experi- 
ments with  electric  motors,  7, 
181. 

Simpson,  Sir  J.  Y.,  discovers  the 
anaesthetic  power  of  chloro- 
form, 4,  217. 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


Singer,  Isaac  M.,  inventor  of  the 
modern  type  of  sewing-ma- 
chine, 9,  97. 

Siphon  recorder,  invented  by 
Lord  Kelvin,  8,  45. 

Sirius,  made  a  record  transat- 
lantic voyage  in  1838,  for  the 
first  time  using  steam  alone 
as  a  motive  power,  7,  73. 

Skyscraper,  The  Modern,  Chap- 
ter VII,  9,  162;  the  develop- 
ment of,  9,  162;  the  steel 
frame,  9,  164;  the  problem 
of  heating,  9,  166;  the  inven- 
tion of  the  Franklin  stove,  9, 
167;  steam  adapted  to  heat- 
ing, 9.  1 68;  the  invention  of 
the  elevator,  9,  169;  new 
tools  and  new  methods,  9, 
175;  some  thought-provoca- 
tive statistics,  9,  178. 

Sledge,  a  modified  form  of  the 
lever,  principle  of  the,  6,  58. 

Slide-rule,  engineer's,  invented 
by  Joshua  Routledge,  6,  120. 

Sloane's,  Sir  Hans,  collection, 
purchased  by  British  govern- 
ment, 5,  4;  finest  of  its  kind 
in  existence,  6,  5. 

Small-pox,  J[enner's  discovery 
of  inoculation  for  preventing, 
4,  190-196. 

Smith,  William,  and  fossil  shells, 
3,  74;  his  discovery  that 
fossil  rocks  are  arranged  in 
regular  systems,  8,75. 

Smith,  Willoughby  S.,  system  of 
wireless  telegraphy  installed 
by,  8,  51. 

Smyth,  Piazzi,  the  idea  of  the 
gyroscope  on  ships  first  put 
into  operation  by,  7,  217. 

Snell,  Willebrord,  discovers  the 
law  of  refraction,  2,  119. 

Societies,  scientific,  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  2,  198. 

Solar  and  telluric  problems,  6, 
205-213. 

Solubility,  as  explained  by  Ost- 
wald  and  Mendeleef,  5,  218- 
219. 

Some  Physical  Laboratories  and 
Physical  Problems,  Chapter 
IV,  6,  73- 


Some  Medical  Laboratories  and 
Medical  Problems,  Chapter 
VII,  5,  178. 

Some  Unsolved  Scientific  Prob- 
lems, Chapter  VIII,  6,  203. 

Somerset,  Edward,  describes 
his  apparatus  for  raising 
water  by  expansion  force  of 
steam,  6,  84. 

Sommerring,  telegraph  of,  8,  1 1. 

Sothic  cycle  measured  by  the 
heliacal  rising  of  Sothis,  1, 
40. 

Sothis,  the  Egyptian  name  of  the 
dog-star  Sirius,  the  rising  of 
which  in  the  morning  sky 
marked  the  beginning  of  the 
new  year,  1,  38. 

Soundings  and  Charts,  7,  41. 

Southey,  Hon.R.,  South- African 
colonial  secretary,  sent  first 
South-African  diamond  to 
Paris  Exposition,  1867,  9,  316. 

Sovereign  of  the  Seas,  The,  de- 
scription of,  7,  60. 

Spallanzani,  Lazzaro,  rival  of 
Hunter,  4,  86;  studies  of 
spontaneous  generation,  4, 
87;  his  chemical  theory  of 
digestion,  4,  88;  elaborates 
upon  experiments  of  R6au- 
mur,  4,  89;  theory  of  gastric 
juices,  ibid.;  experiments  in 
mysteries  of  respiration,  4,  93. 

Spark  recorder,  8,  45. 

Spectroscope,  the,  perfected  by 
Kirchhoff  and  Bunsen,  3,  62; 
4,  69;  wonderful  revelations 
of,  3,  63;  the  results  of  the 
studies  of  Rutherfurd  and 
Secchi,  3,  64;  what  it  reveals 
of  the  nature  and  condition  of 
the  stars,  3,  65;  it  discovered 
the  existence  of  "dark  stars "; 
its  power  to  record  the  actual 
motion  of  stars,  3,  66;  the 
speed  of  an  invisible  planetary 
body  may  be  determined  by 
it,  3,  67;  it  determined  the 
character  and  composition  of 
the  nebulae,  3,  69;  confirms 
the  theory  that  meteorites  and 
shooting-stars  are  one  in  kind 
and  origin,  3,  172;  and 


[216] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


photography,  4,  68-72 ;  utility 
of,  rendered  complete,  4,  70; 
observation  of  the  sun  and 
stars  by,  4,  71. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  his  definition 
of  science,  1,  3;  lent  his  in- 
fluence to  the  Darwin  cause, 
4,  175;  belief  in  transmuta- 
tion of  species,  4,  176;  and 
the  disputed  question  of 
"spontaneous"  variations,  4, 
178;  his  Principles  of  Psy- 
chology, 4,  268. 

Spiller,  invented  a  method  of 
keeping  photographic  plates 
moist  for  several  days,  8,  231. 

Spinning,  primitive  man's  early 
efforts  at,  9,  5;  the  modern 
methods  of,  epitomized,  9, 
16;  the  preparation  of  wool 
for,  9,  18;  Hargreaves  and 
the  spinning-jenny,  9,  21; 
Arkwright  invents  the  water- 
frame,  9,  25;  Crompton  in- 
vents the  mule,  9,  32;  the 
self-acting  mule,  9,  35. 

Spinning-frame.  See  Water 
Frame. 

Spinning- Jenny,  the  invention 
of,  by  James  Hargreaves,  9, 
22;  defects  of,  9,  25. 

Spinthariscope,  invented  by  Dr. 
Crookes,  6,  104. 

Sponge,  investigations  of,  by 
Ernst  Haeckel,  6,  155. 

"Spontaneous  generation"  of 
living  protoplasm,  6,  223. 

"Spontaneous"  variations,  dis- 
puted Question  of,  4,  178. 

Sprague,  Frank  J.,  his  work  in 
developing  electric  railways, 
7,  186. 

Sprott,  detected  the  existence  of 
glands  in  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, 4,  129. 

Spurzheim,  Dr.  Kaspar,  propa- 
gandist of  phrenology,  4, 
248. 

Stahl,  George  Ernst,  experi- 
ments with  air,  4,  6;  his 
phlogiston  theory,  4,  7,  10; 
exponent  of  Animists'  sys- 
tem, 4,  185. 

Staircases,  ancient,  9,  155. 


Staite,  W.  E.,  his  experiments 
with  electric  light,  6,  223. 

Stanhope,  Earl  of,  produced  a 
printing-press  having  a  frame 
made  of  one  piece  of  cast  iron, 
8,  122. 

Starley,  brought  the  bicycle  to 
the  familiar  form  of  the 
"safety,"  7,  155. 

Stars,  the  fixed,  3,  57;  distance 
of  the,  3,  61;  observation  of 
the,  by  the  spectroscope,  4, 
71 ;  study  of  the,  by  Lockyer, 

5,  73;    discovery  of  new,  6, 
79,  80. 

Stas,  M.  J.  S.,  his  scientific  views 
on  photography,  8,  232. 

Static  machine,  principle  of  con- 
struction of,  6,  161. 

Steam,  the  age  of,  6,  15;  super- 
heated, essential  features  of, 

6 ,  1 14-1 1 5 ;      high-pressure, 
Watt's  antagonism  to,  6,  112 ; 
experiments     by     Trevithick 
and    Evans,    6,    113;     much 
earlier  general  use  in  America, 
6,    114;    pressure  of  in  cyl- 
inder   in    simple    engine,    6, 
118;   in  compound  engine,  6, 
118. 

Steamboat,  early  attempts  to 
invent  a,  7,  63;  Fulton's 
final  demonstration  of  its 
possibilities,  7,  70;  the  Great 
Eastern  and  her  successors,  7, 
77;  the  triumph  of  the  tur- 
bine, 7,  81. 

Steam-engine,  principle  of,  6, 
79-81;  marks  turning-point 
in  history  of  civilization,  6, 
81;  development  of,  early 
experimenters  and  inventors 
(Hero,  da  Vinci,  della  Porta, 
de  Caus,  Marquis  of  Worces- 
ter, Savery,  Branca,  Papin, 
Newcomen),  until  time  of 
Watt,  6,  82-92 ;  limitations  to 
Newcomen  engine,  6,  93-94; 
Watt  studies  problem  of  con- 
densation, 6,  95-97;  his  first 
revolutionary  experiment  and 
patent,  6,  97;  description  of 
his  improvements  up  to  1769, 
6,  98-99;  rotary  motion, 

[2!7] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


how  obtained,  6,  99-100; 
centrifugal  governor,  double- 
acting  engine,  cut-off,  in- 
vented by  Watt,  6.  102;  high 
pressure  advocated  by  Treyi- 
thick,  compound  engine  in- 
vented by  Hornblower,  6, 
103 ;  both  ideas  denounced  by 
Watt,  6,  103;  importance  of 
Watt's  inventions,  6,  104— 
1 06;  persistence  of  walking 
beam,  general  use  of,  aban- 
doned, 6,  iio-m;  use  of 
high-pressure  by  Trevithick 
and  Evans,  6.  112-114;  the- 
ory of,  worked  out  by  Carnot 


and  others,  6,  115;  theory  of, 
j    Clausius    and 
Rankine,     6^    115;     essential 


perfected    by 


principles  of  operation,  6, 
116;  principle  and  invention 
of  compound  engine  by  Horn- 
blower,  revived  by  Woolf,  6, 
117;  advantages  over  simple 
engine,  6,  117-118;  triple 
and  quadruple  expansion  en- 
gine, chief  use  of,  6,  118; 
early  belief  in  possibility  of 
rotary  engine,  6,  119;  idea 
patented  by  Watt,  6,  119- 
120;  rotary  engine  of  Rout- 
ledge,  6,  120-121;  of  Bell, 
6,  12 1 ;  model  loaned  to 
South  Kensington  museum  by 
Fielding  and  Platt,  6,  122; 
the  Hoffman  rotary  engine, 
6,  123;  possible  future  of, 
6,  123;  steam  turbine,  in- 
ventor of,  6,  124;  descrip- 
tion of  Parsons'  turbine  en- 
gine, 6,  125;  advantage  of, 
6,  126;  largest  steam  turbine 
yet  built,  6,  130. 
Steam  Locomotive,  The,  Chap- 
ter IV,  7,  119;  the  "Oruktor 
Amphibious,"  constructed  by 
Evans,  7,  121;  the  locomotive 
of  Richard  Trevithick,  7, 
122;  Brunton's  remarkable 
locomotive,  7,  123;  the  ex- 
periments of  Blackett,  7,  124; 
Stephenson  solves  the  prob- 
lem, 7,  124;  the  contest  be- 
tween the  Novelty,  the  Sans- 


pareil,  the  Perseverance,  and 
the  Rocket,  7,  131;  the 
Rocket  declared  the  winner,  7, 
134;  the  Globe,  7,  134;  Ste- 
phenson's  Planet,  7,  135;  im- 

?rovements  in  recent  years, 
,  135;  some  points  of  inter- 
est concerning  the  compound 
locomotive,  7,  138;  the  prob- 
lem of  keeping  the  fire-box 
supplied  with  coal,  7,  140; 
the  Westinghouse  Air-brake, 
7,  141;  automatic  couplings, 
7,  147;  comparison  between 
the  Rocket  and  a  recent  type 
of  locomotive,  7,  150. 

Steamship,  ocean,  equipped 
with  turbine  engines,  6,  124. 
(See  Steamboat.) 

Steam  shovel,  use  of  in  "open 
pit"  mining,  6,  275. 

Steel,  The  Age  of,  Chapter  XIII, 
6,  271;  boats  used  in  trans- 
porting iron  ore,  6,  280;  ma- 
chinery used  in  handling  iron 
ore,  6,  282;  conversion  of 
iron  ore  into  iron  and  steel, 
6,  283;  old  method  of  manu- 
facturing, 6,  287;  Bessemer 
process  of  making  steel,  6, 
289;  open-hearth  method  of 
making,  6,  294;  alloy  steels, 
6,  295. 

Steelyard,  a  lever  of  the  first 
class,  6,  30. 

Steinheil,  Professor,  assists  in 
developing  the  first  practical 
telegraph,  8,  17;  experi- 
ments of,  8,  48. 

Stephenson,  George,  the  success 
of  his  locomotive  largely  due 
to  Trevithick's  method  of  al- 
lowing the  steam  exhaust  to 
escape  into  the  funnel  of  the 
engine  to  increase  the  draught, 
6,  114;  solves  the  problem  of 
steam  locomotion,  7,  124; 
his  early  locomotives,  7,  126; 
the  locomotive  of  1825,  7, 
127 ;  description  of  his  famous 
Rocket,  7,  133. 

Stereo-chemistry,  5,  219. 

Stethoscope,  invented  by  Laen- 
nec,  4,  201. 


[218] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Stevens,  Col.  John,  invented  a 
rotary  engine,  7,  69;  a  pro- 
peller steamboat  produced  by, 
7,  69. 

Steyinus  and  the  law  of  equilib- 
rium, 2,  102;  his  horseless 
carriage,  2,  103;  explanation 
of  "hydrostatic  paradox,"  2, 
104. 

Stirling,  Dr.,  his  efforts  to 
utilize  the  expansion  property 
of  heated  air  in  an  engine,  6, 

133- 

Stone  Age,  man  knew  certain 
rudimentary  principles  of 
science,  1,  5;  the  Egyptians 
of  this  age  overthrown  by  an 
invading  host,  1,  29. 

Storage-battery  systems,  6,  194; 
7,  1 88;  Mr.  Edison's  new 
type  of  storage  battery,  7, 
190. 

Storm  centre,  merely  an  area  of 
low  barometric  pressure,  3, 
202 ;  expansion  of  air  through 
excess  of  temperature,  3,  203. 

Strabo,    the    most    famous    of 


Study  of  diseases  in  the  Berlin 
Institute  of  Pathology,  5, 
186-193. 

Sturgeon,  constructed  the  first 
electric  magnet,  6,  176. 

Submarine  Cable,  The,  Chapter 
II,  8,  30. 

Submarine  Vessels,  Chapter  III, 
7,  93;  first  practical  sub- 
marine boat  made  by  David 
Bushnell,  and  details  of  its 
construction,  7,  94-98;  Rob- 
ert Pulton's  experiments, 
7,  98;  Fulton's  first  sub- 
marine boat,  the  Nautilus,  7, 
99;  the  attack  on  the  Argus 
by  Fulton's  submarine,  7, 
101;  the  attacks  on  the 
Ramillies,  7,  102;  a  successful 
diving  boat,  7,  103;  the  sink- 
ing of  the  Housatonic,  7,  104; 
recent  submarines  and  sub- 
mersibles,  7,  105 ;  the  Holland, 
7,  1 06;  the  Lake  type  of  boat, 
7.io8;  the  unsolved  problem 
of  marine  navigation,  7,  no; 
present  status,  7,  in. 


ancient  geographers,  1,  255;  Submarine  Signaling,  7,  83; 
an  investigator  of  details,  not  early  experiments  with,  7, 
an  original  thinker,  1,  257;  86;  practical  application  of, 


an  original  thinker,  1,  257; 
believed  that  a  vessel  could 
sail  around  the  globe  from 
Spain  to  India,  1,  260;  his  idea 
of  the  arrangement  of  the 
zones,  1,  262;  his  three  fun- 
damental principles,  1,  264. 

Street,  Robert,  suggested  the 
use  of  inflammable  gases  as 
explosives,  6,  135. 

Strutt,  Jedediah,  inventor  of  a 
method  of  knitting  a  ribbed 
surface,  9.  56. 

Strutt,  William,  attempted  to 
construct  a  self-acting  mule, 
9,  35;  assisted  Arkwright  in 
constructing  his  first  mill  at 
Nottingham,  9,  27. 

Struve,  F.  G.  W.,  discovered 
many  double  stars,  3,  58; 
discovered  that  many  seem- 
ingly single  stars  are  really 
clusters,  3,  59. 

Studies  in  the  division  of  egg- 
cells,  6,  134,  135- 


7,  88. 

Successors  of  Galileo  in  Physical 
Science,  The,  Chapter  X,  2, 
204. 

Successors  of  Newton  in  astron- 
omy, The,  Chapter  I,  3,  3. 

Suction,  studied  by  early  philos- 
ophers, 6,  64;  explanation  as 
pressure  of  external  atmos- 
phere given  by  Torricelli,  6, 
65. 

Sulphuric  ether,  vapor  of,  pain- 
dispelling  power  of,  4,  209; 
Morton's  use  of,  in  dentistry, 
4,  214;  claims  of  Jackson 
and  Long  as  to  priority  of 
discovery,  4,  215. 

Sulphurous  gas  liquefied,  6,  40. 

Sumerian,  an  alien  civilized 
race,  settled  in  Mesopotamia, 
overthrown  later  by  Semitic 
invaders,  1,  60. 

Sun,  the,  observations  of,  by  the 
spectroscope,  4,  71;  study  of, 


[219] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


by  Lockyer,  6,  73;  explana- 
tion of  the  continued  heat  of, 
6,  206,  207,  209;  estimate  of 
the  heat-giving  life  of,  6,  208; 
host  of  meteors  falling  into, 

5,  209. 

Sun-dial  invented  and  perfected 
by  Anaximander  and  Anax- 
imenes,  1,  109. 

Sun-spots  discovered  by  Galileo, 
2,  79. 

Swan,  J.  W.,  an  early  experi- 
menter with  electric  light, 

6,  228;  filament  for  an  incan- 
descent lamp  invented  by,  6, 
233. 

Sydenham,  Thomas,  2,  188. 

Sylvius,  founder  of  a  medical 
system,  2,  186. 

Symington,  James,  constructed 
a  boat  consisting  of  two  hulls, 
with  a  paddle-wheel  between 
them  worked  by  steam,  7, 
67. 

Systems,  medical,  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  2,  185. 

Szczepanik,  Mr.  Jan,  his  work 
in  indirect  color-photography, 
8,  245- 

TACITUS,  tells  us  that  in  his  day 
the  Germans  crouched  in  dens 
dug  out  of  the  earth,  9,  133. 

Tagliacozzi,  Gaspar,  restores 
amputated  noses,  2,  183. 

Tait,  Professor  P.  G.,  his  ap- 
paratus for  creating  vortex 
rings  in  air,  3,  291;  molecules 
measurable  in  inches,  3,  301; 
estimate  of  the  heat-giving 
life  of  the  sun,  5,  208. 

Talbot,  Fox,  on  Chaldean 
exorcisms,  1,  71,  72;  dis- 
covered a  process  of  photo- 
graphing on  paper,  called 
"Calotype"  process,  8,  227. 

"Task  System"  of  manufactur- 
ing clothing.  See  Costumes. 

Taylor,  in  association  with  Mil- 
ler and  Symington,  con- 
structed a  boat  consisting  of 
two  hulls,  with  a  paddle- 
wheel  between  them  worked 
by  a  steam-engine,  7,  67. 


Telegraph,  development  of,  8, 
3;  early  experiments  with, 
8,  8;  early  experiments  of 
Morse,  8,  19;  first  public 
exhibition  by  Morse,  8,  20; 
used  for  the  first  time,  8,  21; 
multiple  messages,  8,  25. 

Telegraph,  wireless.  See  Wire- 
less telegraphy. 

Telephone,  the  development  of 
the,  8,  66;  experiment  of 
Hauksbee,  8,  67;  Robert 
Hopke's  method  of  communi- 
cation by, 8,68;  "magiclyre" 
telephone  invented  by  Sir 
Charles  Wheatstone,  8,  69; 
Bpurseul  suggests  an  elec- 
trical telephone,  8,  71;  prac- 
tical telephones  of  Prof.  Alex- 
ander Graham  Bell  and  Elisha 
Gray,  8,  73 ;  Dr.  Graham  Bell 
describes  his  invention,  8,  74; 
question  of  priority  in  the  in- 
vention of  the  telephone,  8, 
8 1 ;  improvement  upon  the 
type  of  receiver  was  made  by 
Thomas  A.  Edison,  8,  83; 
microphone  transmitter  in- 
vented by  Emil  Berliner,  8, 
83;  other  transmitters  in- 
vented by  Professor  Hughes 
and  Francis  Blake,  8,  84; 
long-distance  telephone  per- 
fected, 8,  84;  solid  back 
transmitter  invented  by  A. 
C.  White;  8,  85;  telephone 
equipment,  8,  86;  practical 
operation  of  the  telephone, 
8,  87;  automatic  telephone 
systems,  8,  87;  the  calling 
dial,  8,  88;  the  wireless  tele- 
phone, 8,  88;  Dr.  Lee  De 
Forest's  connection  with  wire- 
less telephony,  8,  89;  instru- 
ments used  by  Dr.  DeForest, 
8,  90;  advantage  of  wire- 
less over  wire  telephones,  8, 

Telephone  equipment,  8,  85. 

Telescope,  invented  by  Lipper- 
shey,  2,  78,  252;  constructed 
by  Galileo,  2,  78,  253 ;  Kepleri- 
an  telescope,  2,  253;  New- 
ton's reflecting  telescope,  2, 


[220] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


255;  achromatic,  invented, 
2,  256. 

Telluric  structure,  the  rigidity 
of,  5,  212. 

Telpherage  systems,  6,  261. 

Temperature,  3,  302,  303,  305, 
306 ;  means  employed  to  mod- 
ify, 5,  201. 

Tennant's  discovery  of  chloride 
of  lime,  4,  26. 

Testu-Bressy,  made  a  balloon 
ascension  mounted  on  the 
back  of  a  horse,  7.  242. 

Tetanus,  discovery  of  toxine  for, 
4,  242. 

Teutonic,  one  of  the  first  twin- 
screw  boats  to  make  ocean 
records,  7,  81. 

Textiles,  The  Manufacture  of, 
Chapter  II,  8,38. 

Textiles,  finishing  textile  fabrics, 
9,  52;  printing  patterns  on 
the  finished  cloth,  9,  52; 
finishing  woolen  goods  by 
"teasing,"  9,  54;  lace-making 
and  knitting  machinery,  9, 
55;  modern  origin  of  knitting 
and  crocheting,  9,  55;  knit- 
ting-machine invented  by 
Rev.  William  Lee,  9,  56; 
Jedediah  Strutt's  invention 
of  a  machine  for  knitting  a 
ribbed  surface,  9,  56;  Peter 
Claussen  invents  a  circular 
knitting-machine,  9,  56;  the 
"latch  needle"  introduced  by 
M.  Townsend,  9,  57. 

Thales  the  Milesian,  foretold 
the  eclipse  which  stopped  a 
battle  between  the  Lydians 
and  the  Medes,  1,  103 ;  one  of 
the  Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece, 
1,  104;  a  link  connecting  the 
learning  of  the  old  Orient  with 
the  scholarship  of  the  new 
Occident,  1,105 ;  predicted  the 
great  eclipse,  585  B.C.,  1,  106; 
the  father  of  Greek  astronomy, 
1,  1 06;  a  primitive  geometer, 
1,  107;  is  credited  with  five 
geometrical  truths,  1,  108;  in- 
ventor of  science  of  triangula- 
tion,  1,  1 08;  thought  the 
eclipse  of  the  sun  a  purely 


natural  phenomenon,  1,  109; 
a  pioneer  philosopher  of  the 
West,  1,  115. 

Theophrastus,  did  for  the  vege- 
table kingdom  what  Aristotle 
did  for  the  animal,  1,  188;  his 
work  on  the  mineral  kingdom 
is  the  most  notable  that  was 
produced  in  antiquity,  ibid. 

Theory,  The  Phlogiston,  In 
Chemistry,  Chapter  I,  4,  3. 

Theories,  Modern,  of  Heat  and 
Light,  Chapter  VI,  3,  206. 

Theories  of  Organic  Evolution, 
Chapter  VI,  4,  140. 

Thermometer  invented  by  Gal- 
ileo, 2,  119. 

Thimonnier,  Barthel6my,  in- 
ventor of  the  first  practical 
sewing-machine,  9,  90. 

Thinite  dynasty,  the  first,  1, 
36. 

Third  rails  and  trolleys,  7,  184. 

Thirteenth-century  medicine,  2, 

Thompson,  Benjamin  (Count 
Rumford),  an  American, 
founder  of  the  Royal  In- 
stitution of  Great  Britain,  6, 
30;  his  experiments  to  de- 
monstrate the  vibratory  the- 
ory of  heat,  3,  208. 

Thompson,  Sir  J.  J.,  and  the 
nature  of  electricity,  5,  92-97 ; 
and  the  source  of  energy  of 
radio-activity,  6,  107;  his 
hypotheses  of  the  instability 
of  the  atom,  5,  109;  his  con- 
ception of  the  electron,  6,  1 58. 

Thompson,  R.  Campbell,  his 
studies  of  the  astronomical 
tablets  of  the  Assyrians,  1,  64 ; 
thought  the  Chaldean  astrono- 
mers had  a  kind  of  machine 
for  reckoning  time,  1,  67. 

Thomson,  Thomas,  adopted  the 
atomic  view  of  Dalton,  4,  44. 

Thomson,  Sir  William.  See 
Lord  Kelvin. 

Thoria,  its  use  in  making  gas 
mantles,  6,  211;  used  in  con- 
nection with  zirconia,  alum- 
ina, magnesia,  etc.,  in  making 
gas  mantles,  6,  211. 


[221] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


Thorium,  discovery  of  the  radio-      "Trophic  centres,"  Waller  and 

active  properties  of,  5,  100.  the  study  of,  4,  280. 

Thundering     Legion,     the,     1,      Trotula,    a    perhaps     mythical 

woman  physician,  2,  29. 

Trowbridge,  Prof.  J.,  experi- 
ments relating  to  the  trans- 
mission of  messages  by  wire, 
8,  49- 

Tucker,  Stephen  D.,  invented  a 
rotating  folding  cylinder  that 
folded  papers  as  fast  as  the 
presses  could  print  them,  8, 
130. 

Tungsten  lamp,  6,  234. 

Tungsten  steel,  6,  297. 

Tuke,  Dr.  William,  leader  in  re- 
forms for  care  of  insane,  4,  245. 

Tunis,  Howard  Hansel,  satis- 
factory monorail  system  in- 
vented by,  7,  193. 

Turbine  steam-engine,  first  pro- 
posed by  Branca  (1629),  6, 
87;  Mr.  C.  A.  Parsons'  in- 
vention of,  6,  124;  its  use  on 
the  Turbinia,  6,  124;  its 
application  to  ocean  steamers, 

6,  125;    detailed  description 
of,   6,    126;    its  efficiency  as 
compared     to     reciprocating 
engine,    6,    126;    estimate  of, 
by  the  London  Times,  6,  127; 
as  used  on  Lusitania,  6,  128; 
its    use    in    America    as    re- 
ported   by    Mr.    Edward    H. 
Sanborn,   6,   129;    its  use  in 
foreign  countries,   6,   130;  of 
Dr.  Gustav  De  Laval,  6,  131; 
the  use  of,  on  ocean  steamers, 

7,  82. 

Turbine  water-wheels,  invention 
of;  replaces  earlier  types  of 
water-wheels,  6,  72;  new 
types  of,  6,  73;  used  in  gen- 
erating electricity  at  Niagara 
Falls,  6,  187. 

Turbinia,  first  steamship 
equipped  with  turbine  engine, 
1897,  6,  124;  its  speed  as- 
tonished the  nautical  world, 
7,  81. 

Turner,  James,  invented  "Tur- 
ner's yellow,"  8,  283. 

Turpin,  studies  of  micro-organ- 


296. 

Tisandier  brothers  applied  the 
electric  motor  to  a  balloon,  7, 
264. 

Tolstoi,  Count  Leo,  his  fondness 
for  physical  work  an  eccen- 
tricity, 6,  27. 

Tongs,  lever  of  the  third  class, 
6,  31. 

Tools,  man  the  tool-making 
animal,  6,  6-8. 

Torricelli,  disciple  of  Galileo,  2, 
120;  discovers  that  "suction " 
is  air  pressure,  2,  120;  6,  65; 
his  barometer,  2,  122;  discov- 
ery in  hydraulics,  2,  123. 

Townsend,  M.,  inventor  of  the 
"latch  needle"  for  knitting- 
machines,  9,  57. 

Toxine,  anti-,  the  discovery  of, 
for  tetanus  and  diphtheria,  4, 
242. 

Transformers,  electrical,  6,  198. 

Transmission  of  power,  by 
means  of  gears,  belts,  chains, 
6,  35;  by  electricity,  6?  194- 

Transmutation  of  species,  4, 
149,  150,  152,  153,  159,  161, 
167,  170,  174,  176. 

Treadle,  lever  of  the  third  class, 
6,  31- 

Treadmill,  modified  form  of 
lever,  6,  58. 

Treviranus,  Gottfried  Reinhold, 
motion  of  cell  contents,  redis- 
covered in  1807  by,  4,  124; 
coined  the  word  "biology," 
4,  160. 

Trevithick,  Richard,  his  pump- 
ing-engines,  used  by  Boulton 
and  Watt,  introduces  high- 
pressure  engine,  introduces 
steam-propelled  road  vehicles, 

6,  113;   planned  an  iron  ship, 

7,  75;    the  locomotive  of,  7, 
12 1 ;    the   automobile  of,    7, 
159- 

Trichina  spiralis,  Owen's  dis- 
covery of,  4,  207. 

Trichinosis,  the  subject  of,  4, 
207. 


ism,  4,  219. 


[222] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Two  Pseudo-Sciences — Alchemy 
and  Astrology,  Chapter  VI, 
2,  124. 

Tycho  Brahe,  great  Danish  as- 
tronomer, 2,  65;  observation 
of  comets,  2,  67;  method  of 
finding  latitude,  2,  68;  re- 
discovery of  "moon's  varia- 
tion," 2,  69;  explanation  of 
the  new  star  in  Cassiopeia,  2, 
69. 

Tyndall,  John,  a  recruit  to  the 
Darwinian  theory,  4,  175; 
corroborates  the  results  of 
Pasteur  as  to  the  non-exist- 
ence of  spontaneous  genera- 
tion, 4,  1 80. 

UNIVERSITIES  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  2,  43. 

University  College,  London,  Dr. 
Ramsay's  labors  in,  5,  82. 

University  of  Jena,  6,  148-150; 
freedom  of  thought  and  ex- 
pression at,  6,  158. 

Unsolved  Scientific  Problems, 
Some,  Chapter  VIII,  6,  203. 

Uranium,  discovery  of  the  radio- 
active properties  of,  5,  100. 

VALVES  of  the  veins,  con- 
troversy about  them  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  2,  166. 

Van  Beneden,  discovery  of  the 
centrosome,  5,  226. 

Van  Berquen,  his  discovery 
that  by  a  certain  arrangement 
of  the  facets  on  a  diamond 
the  reflection  and  dispersion 
of  light  are  greatly  increased, 

9.  3°5- 
Van  Depoele,  the  inventions  of, 

7,  185. 
Van    Helmont,    Jan    Baptista, 

founder  of  medical  system,  2, 

185. 
Van  't    Hoof's    studies  of   the 

space   relations  of  atoms,  5, 

219. 
Van  Niekirk,  Schalk,  part  taken 

in    the    discovery    of    South 

African  diamonds,  9,  315. 
Van  Siegen,  invented  the  form 

of  metal-engraving  known  as 

mezzotint,  8,  196. 


Varley,  constructed  a  dynamo- 
electric  machine,  6,  178. 

Varnishes,  8,  316. 

Vauconson,  M.,  a  Frenchman 
who  suggested  plans  for  a 
power-loom,  9,  43. 

Vegetables,  respiratory  organs 
of,  4,  94;  cell  walls  of,  4,  124. 

Ventilation,  problems  in,  6,  200; 
in  mines,  6,  253. 

Venus,  phases  of  the  planet 
discovered  by  Galileo,  2,  79. 

Verneuil,  M.,  his  experiments 
with  artificial  gems,  9,  332. 

Vesalius,  Andrew,  "the  greatest 
of  anatomists,"  2,  164. 

Ville  de  Orleans,  the  famous 
voyage  made  by  the,  7,  259. 

Vinci,  see  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

Viper,  wrecking  of,  possibly 
caused  by  gyroscopic  action, 
7,  222. 

Virchow,  Rudolf,  demonstrates 
the  correctness  of  Von  Mohl's 
cell  formation,  4,  127;  the 
discoveries  of,  6,  188;  his 
work  in  pathology,  6,  189;  his 
ways  of  living  and  working,  6, 
190;  his  method  of  teaching, 
5,  191, 192. 

Vitalists'  system,  4,  185;  theory 
of,  4,  186. 

Vitruvius,  warns  the  Romans 
against  elaborately  carved 
cornices,  9,  150. 

Volta,  Alessandro,  inventor  of 
the  "voltaic  pile,"  3,  230;  his 
discovery  paved  the  way  for 
the  electric  light,  6,  220. 

Voltage,  theoretical  explana- 
tion of  high  and  low,  6,  200. 

Von  Alteneck,  introduced  drum 
arrangement  of  armature,  6, 
179. 

Von  Baer,  Karl  Ernst,  studies  in 
embryology,  4,  122. 

Von  Empergner,  discovered  that 
metal  embedded  in  concrete 
is  protected  from  rust,  9, 
198. 

Von  Guericke,  Otto,  inventor  of 
air-pump,  2,  211;  demon- 
stration of  atmospheric  pres- 
sure by  the  striking  experi- 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


ment  with  the  "Magdeburg 
spheres,"  2,  212;  6,  66; 
electrical  discoveries,  2,  213. 

Von  Kleist,  Dean,  discovers 
principle  of  the  Ley  den  jar,  2, 
280. 

Von  Mohl,  Dr.  Hugo,  studies  of 
the  vegetable  cell,  4,  123 ;  dis- 
covery of  the  formation  of 
cells,  4,  126;  correctness  of 
cell  theory  demonstrated  by 
Virchow,  4,  127. 

Vortex  atom,  speculations  based 
upon  the  hypothesis  of ,  6,  2 16. 

Vortex  theory,  Lord  Kelvin's 
estimate  of,  5,  217. 

Vulcan,  the  pioneer  of  all  iron 
boats,  built  by  Thomas  Wil- 
son, 7,  75- 

WALES,  observed  fluctuation  of 
the  compass  due  to  the  mag- 
netic influence  of  the  ship  on 
which  it  is  placed,  7,  n. 

Walking-beam,  persistence  of, 
in  engines,  6,  102,  no;  use 
in  side-wheel  steamers,  gen- 
eral use  abandoned,  6,  in. 

Wallace,  Alfred  Russel,  the 
work  of,  4,  172;  joint  paper 
of,  and  Darwin  presented  to 
the  Linnaean  Society  of  Lon- 
don, 4,  173. 

Wallace,  Sir  William,  his  clans- 
men the  prototypes  in  mili- 
tary costume  of  modern 
Schotch  soldiers,  9,  75. 

Waller  and  the  study  of  "tro- 
phic centres,"  4,  280. 

"Warren  mastodon,"  3,  113. 

Wars,  their  stimulating  effect 
upon  surgery  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  2,  39. 

"Washington"  press,  the  popu- 
lar hand-press  for  taking 
fine  proofs,  8,  122. 

"Water  controversy"  between 
Cavendish  and  Watt,  4, 14, 15. 

Water,  weight  of  cubic  foot, 
working  capacity  determined, 
6,  70;  law  of  pressure  in  all 
directions  discovered  by  Ser- 
vinus,  6,  75;  as  a  conductor 
of  electricity,  8,  48. 


Water    engines,    described,    6, 

77-78. 
Water-frame,       invented       by 

Richard    Arkwright,    9,    25; 

Principle  of  its  construction, 
,  26. 
Watermills,  early  history  of,  6, 

70. 

Water  motor,  design  proposed 
by  Lord  Armstrong,  efficiency 
of,  6,  121. 

Water-wheels,  types  of,  use  of, 
6,  71;  recent  advances  in,  6, 

Watson,  William,  electrical  ex- 
periments, 2,  284;  discovered 
that  water  could  be  made  to 
take  the  place  of  wires  as  the 
return  circuit  of  two  batteries, 
8,48. 

Watson,  Thomas  A.,  assisted 
Dr.  Bell  in  his  experiments 
with  the  telephone,  8,  80. 

Watt,  James,  controversy  with 
Cavendish,  4,  14;  Arago  de- 
cides in  favor  of,  4,  15;  his 
process  of  practical  bleaching, 
4,  26;  Jperfector,  not  inventor, 
of  steam-engine,  6,  82 ;  early 
life;  connection  with  Profes- 
sor Black,  6,  94;  studies 
deficiencies  of  steam-engine, 
6,  94-97;  first  revolutionary 
experiment,  first  patent,  6, 
97;  describes  his  improve- 
ments up  to  1769,  6,  98-99; 
second  patent  with  device  for 
reciprocating  motion,  6,  99; 
Picard's  patent  of  crank  and 
connecting  rod  leads  to  inven- 


. 5>  v» 

100-101;  invents  centrifugal 
governor,  6,  102;  invents 
double-acting  engine  and  cut- 
off, 6,  102;  denounced  ideas 
of  high  pressure,  and  com- 
pound engine;  antagonistic  to 
steam  locomotion,  6,  103;  im- 
portance of  his  inventions,  6, 
104-106;  personality  of,  6, 
107-109;  fails  to  see  feasibil- 
ity of  doing  away  with  walk- 


[224] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


ing-beam,  6, 1 1 1 ;  antagonism 
to  high  pressure  considered, 
6,  112;  patented  idea  of 
rotary  engine,  6,  119—120. 

Weaving,  the  art  as  practised 
by  primitive  races,  9,  39;  how 
the  Egyptians  may  have 
learned  the  art,  9,  39;  the 
dependence  of  weaving  upon 
spinning,  9,  41;  John  Kay 
invents  the  flying  shuttle, 
9,  42;  the  power-loom  in- 
vented by  Dr.  Cartwright, 
9,  44- 

Weber,  E.  H.,  experiments  on 
nerve  stimuli,  4,  264. 

Weber,  one  of  the  first  inventors 
of  a  practical  working  tele- 
Wedge,  an  inclined  plane,  6,  38; 
modifications  of,  6,  54. 

Wedgwood,  Josiah,  gauged  the 
highest  temperature  with  the 
clay  pyrometer,  3,  206;  the 
superiority  of  his  pottery  ex- 
plained, 9,  232. 

Wedgwood,  Thomas,  his  ap- 
plication to  picture-reproduc- 
tion of  Scheele's  discovery 
that  light  changes  the  color 
of  certain  chemicals,  8,  221. 

Weisenthal,  Charles  F.,  invented 
a  sewing-machine  for  sewing 
hand-embroidery,  9,  89. 

Weismann,  August,  objections 
to  the  Lamarckian  conception 
that  acquired  characters  are 
transmissible,  4,  178;  theory 


3,  13 1 ;  made  the  earliest  con- 
spicuous attempt  to  classify 
the  earth's  strata,  3,  155. 

Westinghouse,  George,  inventor 
of  the  Westinghouse  air  brake, 
7,  141. 

Wheatstone,  Sir  Charles,  his 
name  intimately  connected 
with  the  early  efforts  at  utili- 
zation of  magneto-electric 
power,  6.  178;  invented  the 
'magic  lyre  telephone,"  8, 
69. 

Wheel,  lever  of  the  first-class,  6, 
33;  primitive  friction  re- 
ducer, 6,55;  speculation  as  to 
invention  of,  6,  56. 

Wheelbarrow,  lever  of  the  sec- 
ond class,  6,  30. 

Whistler,  one  of  the  great  ex- 
ponents of  the  form  of  en- 
graving known  as  etching,  8, 
196. 

White,  C.  A.,  invented  the  "solid 
back"  transmitter,  8,  85. 

Whitney,  Eli,  inventor  of  the 
cotton-gin,  9,  9;  early  life  of, 
9,  9;  circumstances  leading 
up  to  his  invention  of  the 
cotton-gin,  9,  10;  difficulties 
attending  the  patenting  and 
marketing  of  his  invention, 
9,  ii. 

Wilcox,  James,  the  balloon  as- 
cension of,  7,  237. 

Wilde,  Dr.  Henry,  inventor  of 
the  first  separately  excited 
dynamo,  6,  178. 


of  heredity,  6,  134;  scheme  of      Wilkinson,'  assisted  in  clearing 


the    relations    of    the    intra- 
cellular  units,  6,  226. 
Wellington,    Duke    of,    his    op- 
position to  the  development 
of  the  automobile,  7,  160. 


up  the  mysteries  of  the  in- 
scriptions on  the  Rosetta 
Stone,  1,  27. 

Willis,    Thomas,    English    phy- 
sician, 2,  187. 


ui    tiic  auMjiiiuuiic;,    I,    xuvj.  OIV*I«*AA,  AI,         £! 

Wells,  Dr.  Horace,  experiments      Wilson,  Allen  B.,  improves  the 
in  painless  dentistry,  4,  213.  mechanism    of    the    sewing- 


Wells',    Dr.    W.    C.,  solved   the          machine,  9,  97. 

problem    of    dew     formation      Wilson,  Thos.  P.,  his  discovery 

of  acetylene  gas,  6,  213. 
Wilson,  Thomas,  built  the  first 

iron  vessel,  7,  75. 
Windlass,  a  lever  of  the  second 
class,  6,  34- 


3,  183;   his  essay  on  dew,  3, 

185. 
Welsbach,    Dr.    Auer   von,    his 

invention  of  the  incandescent 

gas  burner,  6,  210. 
Werner,  a  scientist  of  Saxony, 


Windmills,  described,  history  of, 

[**$] 


KEY  AND  INDEX 


6,  68;  difference  between 
modern  and  ancient;  defects 
of,  6,  69. 

Winds,  controlled  by  a  general 
mathematical  law,  3,  200; 
their  direction  in  a  storm 
centre,  3,  201,  202;  long-time 


intrinsically  from  those  of  ea-ly 

wood  engravers,  8,  187. 
Wollaston,    Dr.   William   Hyde, 

his  suggestions  to  improve  the 

microscope,    4,    no. 
Women,  the  bearers  of  burdens, 


6,  56. 
forecasts'    possible    only      in      Wood-engraving,     8,     ij*4;    the 


India,  3,  205. 
Winkler,      Johann      Heinrichs, 

tries  to  measure  speed  of  elec- 

tric current,  2,  278. 
Wireless     telegraph,     used     by 


oldest  wood-cuts,  8,  186; 
improvement  made  by  Eiirer, 
8,  188;  technic  of  wood- 


engraving,   8,    189;  time  and 
cost  of  production,  8,  191. 

Cyrus   the   Great,'    8,    3;   the      Woodhouse,    Sir     Philip,    Gov- 
oldest    form    of    communica-  ernor   of   Cape    Colony,    pur- 

tion  by  telegraph,   8,  3 ;  use          chased  first  important  South 
of,  by  Napoleon,   8,  3;  elec-          African  diamond,  9,  316. 
trical,  8,  47;  water  and  earth      Wool,    the    preparation   of,    for 

as    conductors,    8,    48;     dis-      spinning,  9,  18. 

coyeries    of    Professor   Trow- 
bridge,    of    Harvard,    8,    49; 


Woolf,  Arthur,  revived  idea  of 
compound     engine,     6,     117; 

experiments    of    Sir    William  demonstrated  its  merits  over 

H.    Preece,    8,    50;     system  simple  engine,  6,  117. 

patented  by  Thomas  A.  Edi-      Woolrich,  his  name  intimately 
son,   8,   50;    system  of  com-  connected  with  the  early  ef- 

munication  installed  by  Smith 
and  Granville,  8,  51;  ex- 
periments with  "Hertzian 


W 


"coherer" 


forts  at  utilization  of  magne- 
to-electric power,   6,   178. 
Worcester,      Marquis     of.     See 
Somerset,   Edward. 


8,    52; 

invented  by   Dr.    Branly,    8,      Work,  definition  of,  6,  29. 
52;    the  work  of  Marconi,  8,      Wortley,  Col.  Stuart,  his  •work 
"tuning"  the  messages, 
first    trans-Atlantic 


in  photography,  8,  232. 

Wortman,  Dr.  J.  L.,  his  evi- 
dence in  connection  with  the 
fossil  lineage  of  the  edentates, 
3,  114- 

Wright,  Orville  (with  his 
brother  Wilbur),  invented 
the  flying-machine,  7,  288; 
his  flights  near  Washington 
in  an  attempt  to  fulfill 
the  Government  tests,  7, 
295;  his  flights  at  Berlin, 
7,  295. 

sur-      Wright,      Wilbur      (with      his 
brother  Orville),  invented  the 


&41 

message,  8,  61;  the  DeForest 
system  used  during  the  Russo- 
Japanese  war,  8,  65;  other 
systems,  8,  65. 

Wireless  telephone,  8,  89;  in- 
struments used  by  Dr.  Lee 
DeForest,  8,  90;  advantage 
of  wireless  over  wire  tele- 
phones, 8,  91. 
Wise,  John,  his  record  flight  in 

a  balloon,  7,  256. 
Wiseman,  Richard,  English 

geon,  2,   184. 

Wohler,    Priedrich,   synthesized          flying-machine,    7,    288;    his 

series  of  flights  in  France,  7, 
293;  his  sensational  flight 
up  the  Hudson  from  Gov- 
ernor's Island,  7,  295. 
Wundt,  Dr.  Wilhelm,  studies  of 
sensations,  apperception,  and 


the  organic  product  urea,  4, 
54;  isomerism  proved  by,  4. 
62;  school  of  physiological 
chemistry  under  guidance  of. 
4,  128. 

Wolff,     Henry,     contemporary 
engraver,  methods  differ  little 


volition,  4,  267. 


[226] 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Wyoming,  the  largest  schooner 
ever  constructed,  7,  61. 

XENOPHANES,  founder  of  the 
famous  Eleatic  School,  1,  114, 
127;  his  theories  concerning 
the  creation,  1,  128;  the  ear- 
liest paleontologist,  1,  120. 

Xiphilinus,  his  account  of  the 
battle  between  the  Romans 
and  the  hostile  Quadi,  1,  297. 

X-ray,  discovered  in  1895,  6,  97. 

Yankee,  experimental  attacks 
upon,  by  submarines,  7,  116. 

Yersin,  famous  for  his  re- 
searches in  the  prevention  and 
cure  of  cholera,  5,  184. 

Young,  Dr.  Thomas,  and  the 
wave  theory  of  light,  3,  215- 
225;  his  extraordinary  pre- 
cocity, 3,  216;  his  "theory 
of  light  and  colors,"  8,217; 
his  experiments  with  mi- 
crometers, 3,  222;  his  doc- 
trine of  the  interference  of  un- 
dulations, 3,  223;  his  wave 
theory  endorsed  by  Fresnel 
and  Arago,  3,  226;  deter- 
mined opposition  to  his  wave 
theory  by  French  scientists, 
ibid.;  final  acceptance  of  his 


wave  theory  by  the  French 
academy,  3,  227;  his  theories 
about  ether,  3,  285;  decipher- 
ment of  the  Rosetta  Stone,  4. 
290;  professor  of  natural 
history  in  Royal  Institution, 
6»  35 ;  wave  theory  of  light,  6. 
36;  his  interpretation  of 
Franklin's  theory  of  electric- 
ity, 6,  150. 

ZENKER,  his  theory  on  color- 
photography,  8,  236. 

Zenon,  discovery  of,  6,  87. 

Zeppelin,  Count,  the  dirigible 
balloons  of,  7,  265. 

Zero,  absolute,  approach  to  the, 
6,  69;  probable  form  of  all 
matter  at,  5,  70. 

Zoological  classification,  Profes- 
sor Haeckel's  work  in  sys- 
tematizing, 6,  i 68. 

Zoology  at  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  4,  99. 

Zoology,  Ernst  Haeckel  and  the 
New,  Chapter  VI,  6,  144. 

Zoology,  the  new,  Ernst  Haeckel 
and,  6,  144;  import  of  the 
study  of,  6 ,  1 66 ;  fundamental 
conception  of ,  6, 167;  Haeckel 
the  recognized  leader  in,  5, 
171. 


[227] 


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